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http components4.1.3
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http components4.1.3

Python参考手册，官方正式版参考手册，chm版。以下摘取部分内容:Navigation index modules | next | Python » 3.6.5 Documentation » Python Documentation contents What’s New in Python What’s New In Python 3.6 Summary – Release highlights New Features PEP 498: Formatted string literals PEP 526: Syntax for variable annotations PEP 515: Underscores in Numeric Literals PEP 525: Asynchronous Generators PEP 530: Asynchronous Comprehensions PEP 487: Simpler customization of class creation PEP 487: Descriptor Protocol Enhancements PEP 519: Adding a file system path protocol PEP 495: Local Time Disambiguation PEP 529: Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8 PEP 528: Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8 PEP 520: Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order PEP 468: Preserving Keyword Argument Order New dict implementation PEP 523: Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython PYTHONMALLOC environment variable DTrace and SystemTap probing support Other Language Changes New Modules secrets Improved Modules array ast asyncio binascii cmath collections concurrent.futures contextlib datetime decimal distutils email encodings enum faulthandler fileinput hashlib http.client idlelib and IDLE importlib inspect json logging math multiprocessing os pathlib pdb pickle pickletools pydoc random re readline rlcompleter shlex site sqlite3 socket socketserver ssl statistics struct subprocess sys telnetlib time timeit tkinter traceback tracemalloc typing unicodedata unittest.mock urllib.request urllib.robotparser venv warnings winreg winsound xmlrpc.client zipfile zlib Optimizations Build and C API Changes Other Improvements Deprecated New Keywords Deprecated Python behavior Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods asynchat asyncore dbm distutils grp importlib os re ssl tkinter venv Deprecated functions and types of the C API Deprecated Build Options Removed API and Feature Removals Porting to Python 3.6 Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior Changes in the Python API Changes in the C API CPython bytecode changes Notable changes in Python 3.6.2 New make regen-all build target Removal of make touch build target Notable changes in Python 3.6.5 What’s New In Python 3.5 Summary – Release highlights New Features PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray PEP 484 - Type Hints PEP 471 - os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator PEP 475: Retry system calls failing with EINTR PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside generators PEP 485: A function for testing approximate equality PEP 486: Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments PEP 488: Elimination of PYO files PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization Other Language Changes New Modules typing zipapp Improved Modules argparse asyncio bz2 cgi cmath code collections collections.abc compileall concurrent.futures configparser contextlib csv curses dbm difflib distutils doctest email enum faulthandler functools glob gzip heapq http http.client idlelib and IDLE imaplib imghdr importlib inspect io ipaddress json linecache locale logging lzma math multiprocessing operator os pathlib pickle poplib re readline selectors shutil signal smtpd smtplib sndhdr socket ssl Memory BIO Support Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support Other Changes sqlite3 subprocess sys sysconfig tarfile threading time timeit tkinter traceback types unicodedata unittest unittest.mock urllib wsgiref xmlrpc xml.sax zipfile Other module-level changes Optimizations Build and C API Changes Deprecated New Keywords Deprecated Python Behavior Unsupported Operating Systems Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods Removed API and Feature Removals Porting to Python 3.5 Changes in Python behavior Changes in the Python API Changes in the C API What’s New In Python 3.4 Summary – Release Highlights New Features PEP 453: Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations Bootstrapping pip By Default Documentation Changes PEP 446: Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable Improvements to Codec Handling PEP 451: A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System Other Language Changes New Modules asyncio ensurepip enum pathlib selectors statistics tracemalloc Improved Modules abc aifc argparse audioop base64 collections colorsys contextlib dbm dis doctest email filecmp functools gc glob hashlib hmac html http idlelib and IDLE importlib inspect ipaddress logging marshal mmap multiprocessing operator os pdb pickle plistlib poplib pprint pty pydoc re resource select shelve shutil smtpd smtplib socket sqlite3 ssl stat struct subprocess sunau sys tarfile textwrap threading traceback types urllib unittest venv wave weakref xml.etree zipfile CPython Implementation Changes PEP 445: Customization of CPython Memory Allocators PEP 442: Safe Object Finalization PEP 456: Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm PEP 436: Argument Clinic Other Build and C API Changes Other Improvements Significant Optimizations Deprecated Deprecations in the Python API Deprecated Features Removed Operating Systems No Longer Supported API and Feature Removals Code Cleanups Porting to Python 3.4 Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior Changes in the Python API Changes in the C API Changed in 3.4.3 PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients What’s New In Python 3.3 Summary – Release highlights PEP 405: Virtual Environments PEP 420: Implicit Namespace Packages PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation Features API changes PEP 393: Flexible String Representation Functionality Performance and resource usage PEP 397: Python Launcher for Windows PEP 3151: Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator PEP 409: Suppressing exception context PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions PEP 412: Key-Sharing Dictionary PEP 362: Function Signature Object PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation SimpleNamespace Using importlib as the Implementation of Import New APIs Visible Changes Other Language Changes A Finer-Grained Import Lock Builtin functions and types New Modules faulthandler ipaddress lzma Improved Modules abc array base64 binascii bz2 codecs collections contextlib crypt curses datetime decimal Features API changes email Policy Framework Provisional Policy with New Header API Other API Changes ftplib functools gc hmac http html imaplib inspect io itertools logging math mmap multiprocessing nntplib os pdb pickle pydoc re sched select shlex shutil signal smtpd smtplib socket socketserver sqlite3 ssl stat struct subprocess sys tarfile tempfile textwrap threading time types unittest urllib webbrowser xml.etree.ElementTree zlib Optimizations Build and C API Changes Deprecated Unsupported Operating Systems Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods Deprecated functions and types of the C API Deprecated features Porting to Python 3.3 Porting Python code Porting C code Building C extensions Command Line Switch Changes What’s New In Python 3.2 PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Parsing Module PEP 391: Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging PEP 3148: The concurrent.futures module PEP 3147: PYC Repository Directories PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1 Other Language Changes New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules email elementtree functools itertools collections threading datetime and time math abc io reprlib logging csv contextlib decimal and fractions ftp popen select gzip and zipfile tarfile hashlib ast os shutil sqlite3 html socket ssl nntp certificates imaplib http.client unittest random poplib asyncore tempfile inspect pydoc dis dbm ctypes site sysconfig pdb configparser urllib.parse mailbox turtledemo Multi-threading Optimizations Unicode Codecs Documentation IDLE Code Repository Build and C API Changes Porting to Python 3.2 What’s New In Python 3.1 PEP 372: Ordered Dictionaries PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator Other Language Changes New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules Optimizations IDLE Build and C API Changes Porting to Python 3.1 What’s New In Python 3.0 Common Stumbling Blocks Print Is A Function Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists Ordering Comparisons Integers Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit Overview Of Syntax Changes New Syntax Changed Syntax Removed Syntax Changes Already Present In Python 2.6 Library Changes PEP 3101: A New Approach To String Formatting Changes To Exceptions Miscellaneous Other Changes Operators And Special Methods Builtins Build and C API Changes Performance Porting To Python 3.0 What’s New in Python 2.7 The Future for Python 2.x Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings Python 3.1 Features PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging PEP 3106: Dictionary Views PEP 3137: The memoryview Object Other Language Changes Interpreter Changes Optimizations New and Improved Modules New module: importlib New module: sysconfig ttk: Themed Widgets for Tk Updated module: unittest Updated module: ElementTree 1.3 Build and C API Changes Capsules Port-Specific Changes: Windows Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X Port-Specific Changes: FreeBSD Other Changes and Fixes Porting to Python 2.7 New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases PEP 434: IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches PEP 466: Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.6 Python 3.0 Changes to the Development Process New Issue Tracker: Roundup New Documentation Format: reStructuredText Using Sphinx PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement Writing Context Managers The contextlib module PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module PEP 370: Per-user site-packages Directory PEP 371: The multiprocessing Package PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting PEP 3105: print As a Function PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes PEP 3112: Byte Literals PEP 3116: New I/O Library PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax PEP 3129: Class Decorators PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers The fractions Module Other Language Changes Optimizations Interpreter Changes New and Improved Modules The ast module The future_builtins module The json module: JavaScript Object Notation The plistlib module: A Property-List Parser ctypes Enhancements Improved SSL Support Deprecations and Removals Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes: Windows Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X Port-Specific Changes: IRIX Porting to Python 2.6 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.5 PEP 308: Conditional Expressions PEP 309: Partial Function Application PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1 PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally PEP 342: New Generator Features PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement Writing Context Managers The contextlib module PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type PEP 357: The ‘__index__’ method Other Language Changes Interactive Interpreter Changes Optimizations New, Improved, and Removed Modules The ctypes package The ElementTree package The hashlib package The sqlite3 package The wsgiref package Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes Porting to Python 2.5 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.4 PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers PEP 289: Generator Expressions PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods PEP 322: Reverse Iteration PEP 324: New subprocess Module PEP 327: Decimal Data Type Why is Decimal needed? The Decimal type The Context type PEP 328: Multi-line Imports PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions Other Language Changes Optimizations New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules cookielib doctest Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes Porting to Python 2.4 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.3 PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype PEP 255: Simple Generators PEP 263: Source Code Encodings PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT PEP 278: Universal Newline Support PEP 279: enumerate() PEP 282: The logging Package PEP 285: A Boolean Type PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils PEP 302: New Import Hooks PEP 305: Comma-separated Files PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements Extended Slices Other Language Changes String Changes Optimizations New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules Date/Time Type The optparse Module Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes Other Changes and Fixes Porting to Python 2.3 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.2 Introduction PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes Old and New Classes Descriptors Multiple Inheritance: The Diamond Rule Attribute Access Related Links PEP 234: Iterators PEP 255: Simple Generators PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator Unicode Changes PEP 227: Nested Scopes New and Improved Modules Interpreter Changes and Fixes Other Changes and Fixes Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.1 Introduction PEP 227: Nested Scopes PEP 236: __future__ Directives PEP 207: Rich Comparisons PEP 230: Warning Framework PEP 229: New Build System PEP 205: Weak References PEP 232: Function Attributes PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook PEP 208: New Coercion Model PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages New and Improved Modules Other Changes and Fixes Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.0 Introduction What About Python 1.6? New Development Process Unicode List Comprehensions Augmented Assignment String Methods Garbage Collection of Cycles Other Core Changes Minor Language Changes Changes to Built-in Functions Porting to 2.0 Extending/Embedding Changes Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install XML Modules SAX2 Support DOM Support Relationship to PyXML Module changes New modules IDLE Improvements Deleted and Deprecated Modules Acknowledgements Changelog Python 3.6.5 final? Tests Build Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1? Security Core and Builtins Library Documentation Tests Build Windows macOS IDLE Tools/Demos C API Python 3.6.4 final? Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library Documentation Tests Build Windows macOS IDLE Tools/Demos C API Python 3.6.3 final? Library Build Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1? Security Core and Builtins Library Documentation Tests Build Windows IDLE Tools/Demos Python 3.6.2 final? Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2? Security Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library Security Library IDLE C API Build Documentation Tools/Demos Tests Windows Python 3.6.1 final? Core and Builtins Build Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Windows C API Documentation Tests Build Python 3.6.0 final? Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2? Core and Builtins Tools/Demos Windows Build Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library C API Documentation Tools/Demos Python 3.6.0 beta 4? Core and Builtins Library Documentation Tests Build Python 3.6.0 beta 3? Core and Builtins Library Windows Build Tests Python 3.6.0 beta 2? Core and Builtins Library Windows C API Build Tests Python 3.6.0 beta 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE C API Tests Build Tools/Demos Windows Python 3.6.0 alpha 4? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Tests Windows Build Python 3.6.0 alpha 3? Core and Builtins Library Security Library Security Library IDLE C API Build Tools/Demos Documentation Tests Python 3.6.0 alpha 2? Core and Builtins Library Security Library Security Library IDLE Documentation Tests Windows Build Windows C API Tools/Demos Python 3.6.0 alpha 1? Core and Builtins Library Security Library Security Library Security Library IDLE Documentation Tests Build Windows Tools/Demos C API Python 3.5.3 final? Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library Security Library Security Library IDLE C API Documentation Tests Tools/Demos Windows Build Python 3.5.2 final? Core and Builtins Tests IDLE Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Security Library Security Library Security Library Security Library Security Library IDLE Documentation Tests Build Windows Tools/Demos Windows Python 3.5.1 final? Core and Builtins Windows Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Documentation Tests Build Windows Tools/Demos Python 3.5.0 final? Build Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4? Library Build Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3? Core and Builtins Library Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2? Core and Builtins Library Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Documentation Tests Python 3.5.0 beta 4? Core and Builtins Library Build Python 3.5.0 beta 3? Core and Builtins Library Tests Documentation Build Python 3.5.0 beta 2? Core and Builtins Library Python 3.5.0 beta 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Tests Documentation Tools/Demos Python 3.5.0 alpha 4? Core and Builtins Library Build Tests Tools/Demos C API Python 3.5.0 alpha 3? Core and Builtins Library Build Tests Tools/Demos Python 3.5.0 alpha 2? Core and Builtins Library Build C API Windows Python 3.5.0 alpha 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Build C API Documentation Tests Tools/Demos Windows The Python Tutorial 1. Whetting Your Appetite 2. Using the Python Interpreter 2.1. Invoking the Interpreter 2.1.1. Argument Passing 2.1.2. Interactive Mode 2.2. The Interpreter and Its Environment 2.2.1. Source Code Encoding 3. An Informal Introduction to Python 3.1. Using Python as a Calculator 3.1.1. Numbers 3.1.2. Strings 3.1.3. Lists 3.2. First Steps Towards Programming 4. More Control Flow Tools 4.1. if Statements 4.2. for Statements 4.3. The range() Function 4.4. break and continue Statements, and else Clauses on Loops 4.5. pass Statements 4.6. Defining Functions 4.7. More on Defining Functions 4.7.1. Default Argument Values 4.7.2. Keyword Arguments 4.7.3. Arbitrary Argument Lists 4.7.4. Unpacking Argument Lists 4.7.5. Lambda Expressions 4.7.6. Documentation Strings 4.7.7. Function Annotations 4.8. Intermezzo: Coding Style 5. Data Structures 5.1. More on Lists 5.1.1. Using Lists as Stacks 5.1.2. Using Lists as Queues 5.1.3. List Comprehensions 5.1.4. Nested List Comprehensions 5.2. The del statement 5.3. Tuples and Sequences 5.4. Sets 5.5. Dictionaries 5.6. Looping Techniques 5.7. More on Conditions 5.8. Comparing Sequences and Other Types 6. Modules 6.1. More on Modules 6.1.1. Executing modules as scripts 6.1.2. The Module Search Path 6.1.3. “Compiled” Python files 6.2. Standard Modules 6.3. The dir() Function 6.4. Packages 6.4.1. Importing * From a Package 6.4.2. Intra-package References 6.4.3. Packages in Multiple Directories 7. Input and Output 7.1. Fancier Output Formatting 7.1.1. Old string formatting 7.2. Reading and Writing Files 7.2.1. Methods of File Objects 7.2.2. Saving structured data with json 8. Errors and Exceptions 8.1. Syntax Errors 8.2. Exceptions 8.3. Handling Exceptions 8.4. Raising Exceptions 8.5. User-defined Exceptions 8.6. Defining Clean-up Actions 8.7. Predefined Clean-up Actions 9. Classes 9.1. A Word About Names and Objects 9.2. Python Scopes and Namespaces 9.2.1. Scopes and Namespaces Example 9.3. A First Look at Classes 9.3.1. Class Definition Syntax 9.3.2. Class Objects 9.3.3. Instance Objects 9.3.4. Method Objects 9.3.5. Class and Instance Variables 9.4. Random Remarks 9.5. Inheritance 9.5.1. Multiple Inheritance 9.6. Private Variables 9.7. Odds and Ends 9.8. Iterators 9.9. Generators 9.10. Generator Expressions 10. Brief Tour of the Standard Library 10.1. Operating System Interface 10.2. File Wildcards 10.3. Command Line Arguments 10.4. Error Output Redirection and Program Termination 10.5. String Pattern Matching 10.6. Mathematics 10.7. Internet Access 10.8. Dates and Times 10.9. Data Compression 10.10. Performance Measurement 10.11. Quality Control 10.12. Batteries Included 11. Brief Tour of the Standard Library — Part II 11.1. Output Formatting 11.2. Templating 11.3. Working with Binary Data Record Layouts 11.4. Multi-threading 11.5. Logging 11.6. Weak References 11.7. Tools for Working with Lists 11.8. Decimal Floating Point Arithmetic 12. Virtual Environments and Packages 12.1. Introduction 12.2. Creating Virtual Environments 12.3. Managing Packages with pip 13. What Now? 14. Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution 14.1. Tab Completion and History Editing 14.2. Alternatives to the Interactive Interpreter 15. Floating Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations 15.1. Representation Error 16. Appendix 16.1. Interactive Mode 16.1.1. Error Handling 16.1.2. Executable Python Scripts 16.1.3. The Interactive Startup File 16.1.4. The Customization Modules Python Setup and Usage 1. Command line and environment 1.1. Command line 1.1.1. Interface options 1.1.2. Generic options 1.1.3. Miscellaneous options 1.1.4. Options you shouldn’t use 1.2. Environment variables 1.2.1. Debug-mode variables 2. Using Python on Unix platforms 2.1. Getting and installing the latest version of Python 2.1.1. On Linux 2.1.2. On FreeBSD and OpenBSD 2.1.3. On OpenSolaris 2.2. Building Python 2.3. Python-related paths and files 2.4. Miscellaneous 2.5. Editors and IDEs 3. Using Python on Windows 3.1. Installing Python 3.1.1. Supported Versions 3.1.2. Installation Steps 3.1.3. Removing the MAX_PATH Limitation 3.1.4. Installing Without UI 3.1.5. Installing Without Downloading 3.1.6. Modifying an install 3.1.7. Other Platforms 3.2. Alternative bundles 3.3. Configuring Python 3.3.1. Excursus: Setting environment variables 3.3.2. Finding the Python executable 3.4. Python Launcher for Windows 3.4.1. Getting started 3.4.1.1. From the command-line 3.4.1.2. Virtual environments 3.4.1.3. From a script 3.4.1.4. From file associations 3.4.2. Shebang Lines 3.4.3. Arguments in shebang lines 3.4.4. Customization 3.4.4.1. Customization via INI files 3.4.4.2. Customizing default Python versions 3.4.5. Diagnostics 3.5. Finding modules 3.6. Additional modules 3.6.1. PyWin32 3.6.2. cx_Freeze 3.6.3. WConio 3.7. Compiling Python on Windows 3.8. Embedded Distribution 3.8.1. Python Application 3.8.2. Embedding Python 3.9. Other resources 4. Using Python on a Macintosh 4.1. Getting and Installing MacPython 4.1.1. How to run a Python script 4.1.2. Running scripts with a GUI 4.1.3. Configuration 4.2. The IDE 4.3. Installing Additional Python Packages 4.4. GUI Programming on the Mac 4.5. Distributing Python Applications on the Mac 4.6. Other Resources The Python Language Reference 1. Introduction 1.1. Alternate Implementations 1.2. Notation 2. Lexical analysis 2.1. Line structure 2.1.1. Logical lines 2.1.2. Physical lines 2.1.3. Comments 2.1.4. Encoding declarations 2.1.5. Explicit line joining 2.1.6. Implicit line joining 2.1.7. Blank lines 2.1.8. Indentation 2.1.9. Whitespace between tokens 2.2. Other tokens 2.3. Identifiers and keywords 2.3.1. Keywords 2.3.2. Reserved classes of identifiers 2.4. Literals 2.4.1. String and Bytes literals 2.4.2. String literal concatenation 2.4.3. Formatted string literals 2.4.4. Numeric literals 2.4.5. Integer literals 2.4.6. Floating point literals 2.4.7. Imaginary literals 2.5. Operators 2.6. Delimiters 3. Data model 3.1. Objects, values and types 3.2. The standard type hierarchy 3.3. Special method names 3.3.1. Basic customization 3.3.2. Customizing attribute access 3.3.2.1. Customizing module attribute access 3.3.2.2. Implementing Descriptors 3.3.2.3. Invoking Descriptors 3.3.2.4. __slots__ 3.3.2.4.1. Notes on using __slots__ 3.3.3. Customizing class creation 3.3.3.1. Metaclasses 3.3.3.2. Determining the appropriate metaclass 3.3.3.3. Preparing the class namespace 3.3.3.4. Executing the class body 3.3.3.5. Creating the class object 3.3.3.6. Metaclass example 3.3.4. Customizing instance and subclass checks 3.3.5. Emulating callable objects 3.3.6. Emulating container types 3.3.7. Emulating numeric types 3.3.8. With Statement Context Managers 3.3.9. Special method lookup 3.4. Coroutines 3.4.1. Awaitable Objects 3.4.2. Coroutine Objects 3.4.3. Asynchronous Iterators 3.4.4. Asynchronous Context Managers 4. Execution model 4.1. Structure of a program 4.2. Naming and binding 4.2.1. Binding of names 4.2.2. Resolution of names 4.2.3. Builtins and restricted execution 4.2.4. Interaction with dynamic features 4.3. Exceptions 5. The import system 5.1. importlib 5.2. Packages 5.2.1. Regular packages 5.2.2. Namespace packages 5.3. Searching 5.3.1. The module cache 5.3.2. Finders and loaders 5.3.3. Import hooks 5.3.4. The meta path 5.4. Loading 5.4.1. Loaders 5.4.2. Submodules 5.4.3. Module spec 5.4.4. Import-related module attributes 5.4.5. module.__path__ 5.4.6. Module reprs 5.5. The Path Based Finder 5.5.1. Path entry finders 5.5.2. Path entry finder protocol 5.6. Replacing the standard import system 5.7. Special considerations for __main__ 5.7.1. __main__.__spec__ 5.8. Open issues 5.9. References 6. Expressions 6.1. Arithmetic conversions 6.2. Atoms 6.2.1. Identifiers (Names) 6.2.2. Literals 6.2.3. Parenthesized forms 6.2.4. Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries 6.2.5. List displays 6.2.6. Set displays 6.2.7. Dictionary displays 6.2.8. Generator expressions 6.2.9. Yield expressions 6.2.9.1. Generator-iterator methods 6.2.9.2. Examples 6.2.9.3. Asynchronous generator functions 6.2.9.4. Asynchronous generator-iterator methods 6.3. Primaries 6.3.1. Attribute references 6.3.2. Subscriptions 6.3.3. Slicings 6.3.4. Calls 6.4. Await expression 6.5. The power operator 6.6. Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations 6.7. Binary arithmetic operations 6.8. Shifting operations 6.9. Binary bitwise operations 6.10. Comparisons 6.10.1. Value comparisons 6.10.2. Membership test operations 6.10.3. Identity comparisons 6.11. Boolean operations 6.12. Conditional expressions 6.13. Lambdas 6.14. Expression lists 6.15. Evaluation order 6.16. Operator precedence 7. Simple statements 7.1. Expression statements 7.2. Assignment statements 7.2.1. Augmented assignment statements 7.2.2. Annotated assignment statements 7.3. The assert statement 7.4. The pass statement 7.5. The del statement 7.6. The return statement 7.7. The yield statement 7.8. The raise statement 7.9. The break statement 7.10. The continue statement 7.11. The import statement 7.11.1. Future statements 7.12. The global statement 7.13. The nonlocal statement 8. Compound statements 8.1. The if statement 8.2. The while statement 8.3. The for statement 8.4. The try statement 8.5. The with statement 8.6. Function definitions 8.7. Class definitions 8.8. Coroutines 8.8.1. Coroutine function definition 8.8.2. The async for statement 8.8.3. The async with statement 9. Top-level components 9.1. Complete Python programs 9.2. File input 9.3. Interactive input 9.4. Expression input 10. Full Grammar specification The Python Standard Library 1. Introduction 2. Built-in Functions 3. Built-in Constants 3.1. Constants added by the site module 4. Built-in Types 4.1. Truth Value Testing 4.2. Boolean Operations — and, or, not 4.3. Comparisons 4.4. Numeric Types — int, float, complex 4.4.1. Bitwise Operations on Integer Types 4.4.2. Additional Methods on Integer Types 4.4.3. Additional Methods on Float 4.4.4. Hashing of numeric types 4.5. Iterator Types 4.5.1. Generator Types 4.6. Sequence Types — list, tuple, range 4.6.1. Common Sequence Operations 4.6.2. Immutable Sequence Types 4.6.3. Mutable Sequence Types 4.6.4. Lists 4.6.5. Tuples 4.6.6. Ranges 4.7. Text Sequence Type — str 4.7.1. String Methods 4.7.2. printf-style String Formatting 4.8. Binary Sequence Types — bytes, bytearray, memoryview 4.8.1. Bytes Objects 4.8.2. Bytearray Objects 4.8.3. Bytes and Bytearray Operations 4.8.4. printf-style Bytes Formatting 4.8.5. Memory Views 4.9. Set Types — set, frozenset 4.10. Mapping Types — dict 4.10.1. Dictionary view objects 4.11. Context Manager Types 4.12. Other Built-in Types 4.12.1. Modules 4.12.2. Classes and Class Instances 4.12.3. Functions 4.12.4. Methods 4.12.5. Code Objects 4.12.6. Type Objects 4.12.7. The Null Object 4.12.8. The Ellipsis Object 4.12.9. The NotImplemented Object 4.12.10. Boolean Values 4.12.11. Internal Objects 4.13. Special Attributes 5. Built-in Exceptions 5.1. Base classes 5.2. Concrete exceptions 5.2.1. OS exceptions 5.3. Warnings 5.4. Exception hierarchy 6. Text Processing Services 6.1. string — Common string operations 6.1.1. String constants 6.1.2. Custom String Formatting 6.1.3. Format String Syntax 6.1.3.1. Format Specification Mini-Language 6.1.3.2. Format examples 6.1.4. Template strings 6.1.5. Helper functions 6.2. re — Regular expression operations 6.2.1. Regular Expression Syntax 6.2.2. Module Contents 6.2.3. Regular Expression Objects 6.2.4. Match Objects 6.2.5. Regular Expression Examples 6.2.5.1. Checking for a Pair 6.2.5.2. Simulating scanf() 6.2.5.3. search() vs. match() 6.2.5.4. Making a Phonebook 6.2.5.5. Text Munging 6.2.5.6. Finding all Adverbs 6.2.5.7. Finding all Adverbs and their Positions 6.2.5.8. Raw String Notation 6.2.5.9. Writing a Tokenizer 6.3. difflib — Helpers for computing deltas 6.3.1. SequenceMatcher Objects 6.3.2. SequenceMatcher Examples 6.3.3. Differ Objects 6.3.4. Differ Example 6.3.5. A command-line interface to difflib 6.4. textwrap — Text wrapping and filling 6.5. unicodedata — Unicode Database 6.6. stringprep — Internet String Preparation 6.7. readline — GNU readline interface 6.7.1. Init file 6.7.2. Line buffer 6.7.3. History file 6.7.4. History list 6.7.5. Startup hooks 6.7.6. Completion 6.7.7. Example 6.8. rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline 6.8.1. Completer Objects 7. Binary Data Services 7.1. struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data 7.1.1. Functions and Exceptions 7.1.2. Format Strings 7.1.2.1. Byte Order, Size, and Alignment 7.1.2.2. Format Characters 7.1.2.3. Examples 7.1.3. Classes 7.2. codecs — Codec registry and base classes 7.2.1. Codec Base Classes 7.2.1.1. Error Handlers 7.2.1.2. Stateless Encoding and Decoding 7.2.1.3. Incremental Encoding and Decoding 7.2.1.3.1. IncrementalEncoder Objects 7.2.1.3.2. IncrementalDecoder Objects 7.2.1.4. Stream Encoding and Decoding 7.2.1.4.1. StreamWriter Objects 7.2.1.4.2. StreamReader Objects 7.2.1.4.3. StreamReaderWriter Objects 7.2.1.4.4. StreamRecoder Objects 7.2.2. Encodings and Unicode 7.2.3. Standard Encodings 7.2.4. Python Specific Encodings 7.2.4.1. Text Encodings 7.2.4.2. Binary Transforms 7.2.4.3. Text Transforms 7.2.5. encodings.idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications 7.2.6. encodings.mbcs — Windows ANSI codepage 7.2.7. encodings.utf_8_sig — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature 8. Data Types 8.1. datetime — Basic date and time types 8.1.1. Available Types 8.1.2. timedelta Objects 8.1.3. date Objects 8.1.4. datetime Objects 8.1.5. time Objects 8.1.6. tzinfo Objects 8.1.7. timezone Objects 8.1.8. strftime() and strptime() Behavior 8.2. calendar — General calendar-related functions 8.3. collections — Container datatypes 8.3.1. ChainMap objects 8.3.1.1. ChainMap Examples and Recipes 8.3.2. Counter objects 8.3.3. deque objects 8.3.3.1. deque Recipes 8.3.4. defaultdict objects 8.3.4.1. defaultdict Examples 8.3.5. namedtuple() Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields 8.3.6. OrderedDict objects 8.3.6.1. OrderedDict Examples and Recipes 8.3.7. UserDict objects 8.3.8. UserList objects 8.3.9. UserString objects 8.4. collections.abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers 8.4.1. Collections Abstract Base Classes 8.5. heapq — Heap queue algorithm 8.5.1. Basic Examples 8.5.2. Priority Queue Implementation Notes 8.5.3. Theory 8.6. bisect — Array bisection algorithm 8.6.1. Searching Sorted Lists 8.6.2. Other Examples 8.7. array — Efficient arrays of numeric values 8.8. weakref — Weak references 8.8.1. Weak Reference Objects 8.8.2. Example 8.8.3. Finalizer Objects 8.8.4. Comparing finalizers with __del__() methods 8.9. types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types 8.9.1. Dynamic Type Creation 8.9.2. Standard Interpreter Types 8.9.3. Additional Utility Classes and Functions 8.9.4. Coroutine Utility Functions 8.10. copy — Shallow and deep copy operations 8.11. pprint — Data pretty printer 8.11.1. PrettyPrinter Objects 8.11.2. Example 8.12. reprlib — Alternate repr() implementation 8.12.1. Repr Objects 8.12.2. Subclassing Repr Objects 8.13. enum — Support for enumerations 8.13.1. Module Contents 8.13.2. Creating an Enum 8.13.3. Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes 8.13.4. Duplicating enum members and values 8.13.5. Ensuring unique enumeration values 8.13.6. Using automatic values 8.13.7. Iteration 8.13.8. Comparisons 8.13.9. Allowed members and attributes of enumerations 8.13.10. Restricted subclassing of enumerations 8.13.11. Pickling 8.13.12. Functional API 8.13.13. Derived Enumerations 8.13.13.1. IntEnum 8.13.13.2. IntFlag 8.13.13.3. Flag 8.13.13.4. Others 8.13.14. Interesting examples 8.13.14.1. Omitting values 8.13.14.1.1. Using auto 8.13.14.1.2. Using object 8.13.14.1.3. Using a descriptive string 8.13.14.1.4. Using a custom __new__() 8.13.14.2. OrderedEnum 8.13.14.3. DuplicateFreeEnum 8.13.14.4. Planet 8.13.15. How are Enums different? 8.13.15.1. Enum Classes 8.13.15.2. Enum Members (aka instances) 8.13.15.3. Finer Points 8.13.15.3.1. Supported __dunder__ names 8.13.15.3.2. Supported _sunder_ names 8.13.15.3.3. Enum member type 8.13.15.3.4. Boolean value of Enum classes and members 8.13.15.3.5. Enum classes with methods 8.13.15.3.6. Combining members of Flag 9. Numeric and Mathematical Modules 9.1. numbers — Numeric abstract base classes 9.1.1. The numeric tower 9.1.2. Notes for type implementors 9.1.2.1. Adding More Numeric ABCs 9.1.2.2. Implementing the arithmetic operations 9.2. math — Mathematical functions 9.2.1. Number-theoretic and representation functions 9.2.2. Power and logarithmic functions 9.2.3. Trigonometric functions 9.2.4. Angular conversion 9.2.5. Hyperbolic functions 9.2.6. Special functions 9.2.7. Constants 9.3. cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers 9.3.1. Conversions to and from polar coordinates 9.3.2. Power and logarithmic functions 9.3.3. Trigonometric functions 9.3.4. Hyperbolic functions 9.3.5. Classification functions 9.3.6. Constants 9.4. decimal — Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic 9.4.1. Quick-start Tutorial 9.4.2. Decimal objects 9.4.2.1. Logical operands 9.4.3. Context objects 9.4.4. Constants 9.4.5. Rounding modes 9.4.6. Signals 9.4.7. Floating Point Notes 9.4.7.1. Mitigating round-off error with increased precision 9.4.7.2. Special values 9.4.8. Working with threads 9.4.9. Recipes 9.4.10. Decimal FAQ 9.5. fractions — Rational numbers 9.6. random — Generate pseudo-random numbers 9.6.1. Bookkeeping functions 9.6.2. Functions for integers 9.6.3. Functions for sequences 9.6.4. Real-valued distributions 9.6.5. Alternative Generator 9.6.6. Notes on Reproducibility 9.6.7. Examples and Recipes 9.7. statistics — Mathematical statistics functions 9.7.1. Averages and measures of central location 9.7.2. Measures of spread 9.7.3. Function details 9.7.4. Exceptions 10. Functional Programming Modules 10.1. itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping 10.1.1. Itertool functions 10.1.2. Itertools Recipes 10.2. functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects 10.2.1. partial Objects 10.3. operator — Standard operators as functions 10.3.1. Mapping Operators to Functions 10.3.2. Inplace Operators 11. File and Directory Access 11.1. pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths 11.1.1. Basic use 11.1.2. Pure paths 11.1.2.1. General properties 11.1.2.2. Operators 11.1.2.3. Accessing individual parts 11.1.2.4. Methods and properties 11.1.3. Concrete paths 11.1.3.1. Methods 11.2. os.path — Common pathname manipulations 11.3. fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams 11.4. stat — Interpreting stat() results 11.5. filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons 11.5.1. The dircmp class 11.6. tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories 11.6.1. Examples 11.6.2. Deprecated functions and variables 11.7. glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion 11.8. fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching 11.9. linecache — Random access to text lines 11.10. shutil — High-level file operations 11.10.1. Directory and files operations 11.10.1.1. copytree example 11.10.1.2. rmtree example 11.10.2. Archiving operations 11.10.2.1. Archiving example 11.10.3. Querying the size of the output terminal 11.11. macpath — Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions 12. Data Persistence 12.1. pickle — Python object serialization 12.1.1. Relationship to other Python modules 12.1.1.1. Comparison with marshal 12.1.1.2. Comparison with json 12.1.2. Data stream format 12.1.3. Module Interface 12.1.4. What can be pickled and unpickled? 12.1.5. Pickling Class Instances 12.1.5.1. Persistence of External Objects 12.1.5.2. Dispatch Tables 12.1.5.3. Handling Stateful Objects 12.1.6. Restricting Globals 12.1.7. Performance 12.1.8. Examples 12.2. copyreg — Register pickle support functions 12.2.1. Example 12.3. shelve — Python object persistence 12.3.1. Restrictions 12.3.2. Example 12.4. marshal — Internal Python object serialization 12.5. dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases” 12.5.1. dbm.gnu — GNU’s reinterpretation of dbm 12.5.2. dbm.ndbm — Interface based on ndbm 12.5.3. dbm.dumb — Portable DBM implementation 12.6. sqlite3 — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases 12.6.1. Module functions and constants 12.6.2. Connection Objects 12.6.3. Cursor Objects 12.6.4. Row Objects 12.6.5. Exceptions 12.6.6. SQLite and Python types 12.6.6.1. Introduction 12.6.6.2. Using adapters to store additional Python types in SQLite databases 12.6.6.2.1. Letting your object adapt itself 12.6.6.2.2. Registering an adapter callable 12.6.6.3. Converting SQLite values to custom Python types 12.6.6.4. Default adapters and converters 12.6.7. Controlling Transactions 12.6.8. Using sqlite3 efficiently 12.6.8.1. Using shortcut methods 12.6.8.2. Accessing columns by name instead of by index 12.6.8.3. Using the connection as a context manager 12.6.9. Common issues 12.6.9.1. Multithreading 13. Data Compression and Archiving 13.1. zlib — Compression compatible with gzip 13.2. gzip — Support for gzip files 13.2.1. Examples of usage 13.3. bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression 13.3.1. (De)compression of files 13.3.2. Incremental (de)compression 13.3.3. One-shot (de)compression 13.4. lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm 13.4.1. Reading and writing compressed files 13.4.2. Compressing and decompressing data in memory 13.4.3. Miscellaneous 13.4.4. Specifying custom filter chains 13.4.5. Examples 13.5. zipfile — Work with ZIP archives 13.5.1. ZipFile Objects 13.5.2. PyZipFile Objects 13.5.3. ZipInfo Objects 13.5.4. Command-Line Interface 13.5.4.1. Command-line options 13.6. tarfile — Read and write tar archive files 13.6.1. TarFile Objects 13.6.2. TarInfo Objects 13.6.3. Command-Line Interface 13.6.3.1. Command-line options 13.6.4. Examples 13.6.5. Supported tar formats 13.6.6. Unicode issues 14. File Formats 14.1. csv — CSV File Reading and Writing 14.1.1. Module Contents 14.1.2. Dialects and Formatting Parameters 14.1.3. Reader Objects 14.1.4. Writer Objects 14.1.5. Examples 14.2. configparser — Configuration file parser 14.2.1. Quick Start 14.2.2. Supported Datatypes 14.2.3. Fallback Values 14.2.4. Supported INI File Structure 14.2.5. Interpolation of values 14.2.6. Mapping Protocol Access 14.2.7. Customizing Parser Behaviour 14.2.8. Legacy API Examples 14.2.9. ConfigParser Objects 14.2.10. RawConfigParser Objects 14.2.11. Exceptions 14.3. netrc — netrc file processing 14.3.1. netrc Objects 14.4. xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data 14.4.1. Packer Objects 14.4.2. Unpacker Objects 14.4.3. Exceptions 14.5. plistlib — Generate and parse Mac OS X .plist files 14.5.1. Examples 15. Cryptographic Services 15.1. hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests 15.1.1. Hash algorithms 15.1.2. SHAKE variable length digests 15.1.3. Key derivation 15.1.4. BLAKE2 15.1.4.1. Creating hash objects 15.1.4.2. Constants 15.1.4.3. Examples 15.1.4.3.1. Simple hashing 15.1.4.3.2. Using different digest sizes 15.1.4.3.3. Keyed hashing 15.1.4.3.4. Randomized hashing 15.1.4.3.5. Personalization 15.1.4.3.6. Tree mode 15.1.4.4. Credits 15.2. hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication 15.3. secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets 15.3.1. Random numbers 15.3.2. Generating tokens 15.3.2.1. How many bytes should tokens use? 15.3.3. Other functions 15.3.4. Recipes and best practices 16. Generic Operating System Services 16.1. os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces 16.1.1. File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment Variables 16.1.2. Process Parameters 16.1.3. File Object Creation 16.1.4. File Descriptor Operations 16.1.4.1. Querying the size of a terminal 16.1.4.2. Inheritance of File Descriptors 16.1.5. Files and Directories 16.1.5.1. Linux extended attributes 16.1.6. Process Management 16.1.7. Interface to the scheduler 16.1.8. Miscellaneous System Information 16.1.9. Random numbers 16.2. io — Core tools for working with streams 16.2.1. Overview 16.2.1.1. Text I/O 16.2.1.2. Binary I/O 16.2.1.3. Raw I/O 16.2.2. High-level Module Interface 16.2.2.1. In-memory streams 16.2.3. Class hierarchy 16.2.3.1. I/O Base Classes 16.2.3.2. Raw File I/O 16.2.3.3. Buffered Streams 16.2.3.4. Text I/O 16.2.4. Performance 16.2.4.1. Binary I/O 16.2.4.2. Text I/O 16.2.4.3. Multi-threading 16.2.4.4. Reentrancy 16.3. time — Time access and conversions 16.3.1. Functions 16.3.2. Clock ID Constants 16.3.3. Timezone Constants 16.4. argparse — Parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commands 16.4.1. Example 16.4.1.1. Creating a parser 16.4.1.2. Adding arguments 16.4.1.3. Parsing arguments 16.4.2. ArgumentParser objects 16.4.2.1. prog 16.4.2.2. usage 16.4.2.3. description 16.4.2.4. epilog 16.4.2.5. parents 16.4.2.6. formatter_class 16.4.2.7. prefix_chars 16.4.2.8. fromfile_prefix_chars 16.4.2.9. argument_default 16.4.2.10. allow_abbrev 16.4.2.11. conflict_handler 16.4.2.12. add_help 16.4.3. The add_argument() method 16.4.3.1. name or flags 16.4.3.2. action 16.4.3.3. nargs 16.4.3.4. const 16.4.3.5. default 16.4.3.6. type 16.4.3.7. choices 16.4.3.8. required 16.4.3.9. help 16.4.3.10. metavar 16.4.3.11. dest 16.4.3.12. Action classes 16.4.4. The parse_args() method 16.4.4.1. Option value syntax 16.4.4.2. Invalid arguments 16.4.4.3. Arguments containing - 16.4.4.4. Argument abbreviations (prefix matching) 16.4.4.5. Beyond sys.argv 16.4.4.6. The Namespace object 16.4.5. Other utilities 16.4.5.1. Sub-commands 16.4.5.2. FileType objects 16.4.5.3. Argument groups 16.4.5.4. Mutual exclusion 16.4.5.5. Parser defaults 16.4.5.6. Printing help 16.4.5.7. Partial parsing 16.4.5.8. Customizing file parsing 16.4.5.9. Exiting methods 16.4.6. Upgrading optparse code 16.5. getopt — C-style parser for command line options 16.6. logging — Logging facility for Python 16.6.1. Logger Objects 16.6.2. Logging Levels 16.6.3. Handler Objects 16.6.4. Formatter Objects 16.6.5. Filter Objects 16.6.6. LogRecord Objects 16.6.7. LogRecord attributes 16.6.8. LoggerAdapter Objects 16.6.9. Thread Safety 16.6.10. Module-Level Functions 16.6.11. Module-Level Attributes 16.6.12. Integration with the warnings module 16.7. logging.config — Logging configuration 16.7.1. Configuration functions 16.7.2. Configuration dictionary schema 16.7.2.1. Dictionary Schema Details 16.7.2.2. Incremental Configuration 16.7.2.3. Object connections 16.7.2.4. User-defined objects 16.7.2.5. Access to external objects 16.7.2.6. Access to internal objects 16.7.2.7. Import resolution and custom importers 16.7.3. Configuration file format 16.8. logging.handlers — Logging handlers 16.8.1. StreamHandler 16.8.2. FileHandler 16.8.3. NullHandler 16.8.4. WatchedFileHandler 16.8.5. BaseRotatingHandler 16.8.6. RotatingFileHandler 16.8.7. TimedRotatingFileHandler 16.8.8. SocketHandler 16.8.9. DatagramHandler 16.8.10. SysLogHandler 16.8.11. NTEventLogHandler 16.8.12. SMTPHandler 16.8.13. MemoryHandler 16.8.14. HTTPHandler 16.8.15. QueueHandler 16.8.16. QueueListener 16.9. getpass — Portable password input 16.10. curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays 16.10.1. Functions 16.10.2. Window Objects 16.10.3. Constants 16.11. curses.textpad — Text input widget for curses programs 16.11.1. Textbox objects 16.12. curses.ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters 16.13. curses.panel — A panel stack extension for curses 16.13.1. Functions 16.13.2. Panel Objects 16.14. platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data 16.14.1. Cross Platform 16.14.2. Java Platform 16.14.3. Windows Platform 16.14.3.1. Win95/98 specific 16.14.4. Mac OS Platform 16.14.5. Unix Platforms 16.15. errno — Standard errno system symbols 16.16. ctypes — A foreign function library for Python 16.16.1. ctypes tutorial 16.16.1.1. Loading dynamic link libraries 16.16.1.2. Accessing functions from loaded dlls 16.16.1.3. Calling functions 16.16.1.4. Fundamental data types 16.16.1.5. Calling functions, continued 16.16.1.6. Calling functions with your own custom data types 16.16.1.7. Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes) 16.16.1.8. Return types 16.16.1.9. Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by reference) 16.16.1.10. Structures and unions 16.16.1.11. Structure/union alignment and byte order 16.16.1.12. Bit fields in structures and unions 16.16.1.13. Arrays 16.16.1.14. Pointers 16.16.1.15. Type conversions 16.16.1.16. Incomplete Types 16.16.1.17. Callback functions 16.16.1.18. Accessing values exported from dlls 16.16.1.19. Surprises 16.16.1.20. Variable-sized data types 16.16.2. ctypes reference 16.16.2.1. Finding shared libraries 16.16.2.2. Loading shared libraries 16.16.2.3. Foreign functions 16.16.2.4. Function prototypes 16.16.2.5. Utility functions 16.16.2.6. Data types 16.16.2.7. Fundamental data types 16.16.2.8. Structured data types 16.16.2.9. Arrays and pointers 17. Concurrent Execution 17.1. threading — Thread-based parallelism 17.1.1. Thread-Local Data 17.1.2. Thread Objects 17.1.3. Lock Objects 17.1.4. RLock Objects 17.1.5. Condition Objects 17.1.6. Semaphore Objects 17.1.6.1. Semaphore Example 17.1.7. Event Objects 17.1.8. Timer Objects 17.1.9. Barrier Objects 17.1.10. Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the with statement 17.2. multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism 17.2.1. Introduction 17.2.1.1. The Process class 17.2.1.2. Contexts and start methods 17.2.1.3. Exchanging objects between processes 17.2.1.4. Synchronization between processes 17.2.1.5. Sharing state between processes 17.2.1.6. Using a pool of workers 17.2.2. Reference 17.2.2.1. Process and exceptions 17.2.2.2. Pipes and Queues 17.2.2.3. Miscellaneous 17.2.2.4. Connection Objects 17.2.2.5. Synchronization primitives 17.2.2.6. Shared ctypes Objects 17.2.2.6.1. The multiprocessing.sharedctypes module 17.2.2.7. Managers 17.2.2.7.1. Customized managers 17.2.2.7.2. Using a remote manager 17.2.2.8. Proxy Objects 17.2.2.8.1. Cleanup 17.2.2.9. Process Pools 17.2.2.10. Listeners and Clients 17.2.2.10.1. Address Formats 17.2.2.11. Authentication keys 17.2.2.12. Logging 17.2.2.13. The multiprocessing.dummy module 17.2.3. Programming guidelines 17.2.3.1. All start methods 17.2.3.2. The spawn and forkserver start methods 17.2.4. Examples 17.3. The concurrent package 17.4. concurrent.futures — Launching parallel tasks 17.4.1. Executor Objects 17.4.2. ThreadPoolExecutor 17.4.2.1. ThreadPoolExecutor Example 17.4.3. ProcessPoolExecutor 17.4.3.1. ProcessPoolExecutor Example 17.4.4. Future Objects 17.4.5. Module Functions 17.4.6. Exception classes 17.5. subprocess — Subprocess management 17.5.1. Using the subprocess Module 17.5.1.1. Frequently Used Arguments 17.5.1.2. Popen Constructor 17.5.1.3. Exceptions 17.5.2. Security Considerations 17.5.3. Popen Objects 17.5.4. Windows Popen Helpers 17.5.4.1. Constants 17.5.5. Older high-level API 17.5.6. Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module 17.5.6.1. Replacing /bin/sh shell backquote 17.5.6.2. Replacing shell pipeline 17.5.6.3. Replacing os.system() 17.5.6.4. Replacing the os.spawn family 17.5.6.5. Replacing os.popen(), os.popen2(), os.popen3() 17.5.6.6. Replacing functions from the popen2 module 17.5.7. Legacy Shell Invocation Functions 17.5.8. Notes 17.5.8.1. Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows 17.6. sched — Event scheduler 17.6.1. Scheduler Objects 17.7. queue — A synchronized queue class 17.7.1. Queue Objects 17.8. dummy_threading — Drop-in replacement for the threading module 17.9. _thread — Low-level threading API 17.10. _dummy_thread — Drop-in replacement for the _thread module 18. Interprocess Communication and Networking 18.1. socket — Low-level networking interface 18.1.1. Socket families 18.1.2. Module contents 18.1.2.1. Exceptions 18.1.2.2. Constants 18.1.2.3. Functions 18.1.2.3.1. Creating sockets 18.1.2.3.2. Other functions 18.1.3. Socket Objects 18.1.4. Notes on socket timeouts 18.1.4.1. Timeouts and the connect method 18.1.4.2. Timeouts and the accept method 18.1.5. Example 18.2. ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects 18.2.1. Functions, Constants, and Exceptions 18.2.1.1. Socket creation 18.2.1.2. Context creation 18.2.1.3. Random generation 18.2.1.4. Certificate handling 18.2.1.5. Constants 18.2.2. SSL Sockets 18.2.3. SSL Contexts 18.2.4. Certificates 18.2.4.1. Certificate chains 18.2.4.2. CA certificates 18.2.4.3. Combined key and certificate 18.2.4.4. Self-signed certificates 18.2.5. Examples 18.2.5.1. Testing for SSL support 18.2.5.2. Client-side operation 18.2.5.3. Server-side operation 18.2.6. Notes on non-blocking sockets 18.2.7. Memory BIO Support 18.2.8. SSL session 18.2.9. Security considerations 18.2.9.1. Best defaults 18.2.9.2. Manual settings 18.2.9.2.1. Verifying certificates 18.2.9.2.2. Protocol versions 18.2.9.2.3. Cipher selection 18.2.9.3. Multi-processing 18.2.10. LibreSSL support 18.3. select — Waiting for I/O completion 18.3.1. /dev/poll Polling Objects 18.3.2. Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects 18.3.3. Polling Objects 18.3.4. Kqueue Objects 18.3.5. Kevent Objects 18.4. selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing 18.4.1. Introduction 18.4.2. Classes 18.4.3. Examples 18.5. asyncio — Asynchronous I/O, event loop, coroutines and tasks 18.5.1. Base Event Loop 18.5.1.1. Run an event loop 18.5.1.2. Calls 18.5.1.3. Delayed calls 18.5.1.4. Futures 18.5.1.5. Tasks 18.5.1.6. Creating connections 18.5.1.7. Creating listening connections 18.5.1.8. Watch file descriptors 18.5.1.9. Low-level socket operations 18.5.1.10. Resolve host name 18.5.1.11. Connect pipes 18.5.1.12. UNIX signals 18.5.1.13. Executor 18.5.1.14. Error Handling API 18.5.1.15. Debug mode 18.5.1.16. Server 18.5.1.17. Handle 18.5.1.18. Event loop examples 18.5.1.18.1. Hello World with call_soon() 18.5.1.18.2. Display the current date with call_later() 18.5.1.18.3. Watch a file descriptor for read events 18.5.1.18.4. Set signal handlers for SIGINT and SIGTERM 18.5.2. Event loops 18.5.2.1. Event loop functions 18.5.2.2. Available event loops 18.5.2.3. Platform support 18.5.2.3.1. Windows 18.5.2.3.2. Mac OS X 18.5.2.4. Event loop policies and the default policy 18.5.2.5. Event loop policy interface 18.5.2.6. Access to the global loop policy 18.5.2.7. Customizing the event loop policy 18.5.3. Tasks and coroutines 18.5.3.1. Coroutines 18.5.3.1.1. Example: Hello World coroutine 18.5.3.1.2. Example: Coroutine displaying the current date 18.5.3.1.3. Example: Chain coroutines 18.5.3.2. InvalidStateError 18.5.3.3. TimeoutError 18.5.3.4. Future 18.5.3.4.1. Example: Future with run_until_complete() 18.5.3.4.2. Example: Future with run_forever() 18.5.3.5. Task 18.5.3.5.1. Example: Parallel execution of tasks 18.5.3.6. Task functions 18.5.4. Transports and protocols (callback based API) 18.5.4.1. Transports 18.5.4.1.1. BaseTransport 18.5.4.1.2. ReadTransport 18.5.4.1.3. WriteTransport 18.5.4.1.4. DatagramTransport 18.5.4.1.5. BaseSubprocessTransport 18.5.4.2. Protocols 18.5.4.2.1. Protocol classes 18.5.4.2.2. Connection callbacks 18.5.4.2.3. Streaming protocols 18.5.4.2.4. Datagram protocols 18.5.4.2.5. Flow control callbacks 18.5.4.2.6. Coroutines and protocols 18.5.4.3. Protocol examples 18.5.4.3.1. TCP echo client protocol 18.5.4.3.2. TCP echo server protocol 18.5.4.3.3. UDP echo client protocol 18.5.4.3.4. UDP echo server protocol 18.5.4.3.5. Register an open socket to wait for data using a protocol 18.5.5. Streams (coroutine based API) 18.5.5.1. Stream functions 18.5.5.2. StreamReader 18.5.5.3. StreamWriter 18.5.5.4. StreamReaderProtocol 18.5.5.5. IncompleteReadError 18.5.5.6. LimitOverrunError 18.5.5.7. Stream examples 18.5.5.7.1. TCP echo client using streams 18.5.5.7.2. TCP echo server using streams 18.5.5.7.3. Get HTTP headers 18.5.5.7.4. Register an open socket to wait for data using streams 18.5.6. Subprocess 18.5.6.1. Windows event loop 18.5.6.2. Create a subprocess: high-level API using Process 18.5.6.3. Create a subprocess: low-level API using subprocess.Popen 18.5.6.4. Constants 18.5.6.5. Process 18.5.6.6. Subprocess and threads 18.5.6.7. Subprocess examples 18.5.6.7.1. Subprocess using transport and protocol 18.5.6.7.2. Subprocess using streams 18.5.7. Synchronization primitives 18.5.7.1. Locks 18.5.7.1.1. Lock 18.5.7.1.2. Event 18.5.7.1.3. Condition 18.5.7.2. Semaphores 18.5.7.2.1. Semaphore 18.5.7.2.2. BoundedSemaphore 18.5.8. Queues 18.5.8.1. Queue 18.5.8.2. PriorityQueue 18.5.8.3. LifoQueue 18.5.8.3.1. Exceptions 18.5.9. Develop with asyncio 18.5.9.1. Debug mode of asyncio 18.5.9.2. Cancellation 18.5.9.3. Concurrency and multithreading 18.5.9.4. Handle blocking functions correctly 18.5.9.5. Logging 18.5.9.6. Detect coroutine objects never scheduled 18.5.9.7. Detect exceptions never consumed 18.5.9.8. Chain coroutines correctly 18.5.9.9. Pending task destroyed 18.5.9.10. Close transports and event loops 18.6. asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler 18.6.1. asyncore Example basic HTTP client 18.6.2. asyncore Example basic echo server 18.7. asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler 18.7.1. asynchat Example 18.8. signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events 18.8.1. General rules 18.8.1.1. Execution of Python signal handlers 18.8.1.2. Signals and threads 18.8.2. Module contents 18.8.3. Example 18.9. mmap — Memory-mapped file support 19. Internet Data Handling 19.1. email — An email and MIME handling package 19.1.1. email.message: Representing an email message 19.1.2. email.parser: Parsing email messages 19.1.2.1. FeedParser API 19.1.2.2. Parser API 19.1.2.3. Additional notes 19.1.3. email.generator: Generating MIME documents 19.1.4. email.policy: Policy Objects 19.1.5. email.errors: Exception and Defect classes 19.1.6. email.headerregistry: Custom Header Objects 19.1.7. email.contentmanager: Managing MIME Content 19.1.7.1. Content Manager Instances 19.1.8. email: Examples 19.1.9. email.message.Message: Representing an email message using the compat32 API 19.1.10. email.mime: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch 19.1.11. email.header: Internationalized headers 19.1.12. email.charset: Representing character sets 19.1.13. email.encoders: Encoders 19.1.14. email.utils: Miscellaneous utilities 19.1.15. email.iterators: Iterators 19.2. json — JSON encoder and decoder 19.2.1. Basic Usage 19.2.2. Encoders and Decoders 19.2.3. Exceptions 19.2.4. Standard Compliance and Interoperability 19.2.4.1. Character Encodings 19.2.4.2. Infinite and NaN Number Values 19.2.4.3. Repeated Names Within an Object 19.2.4.4. Top-level Non-Object, Non-Array Values 19.2.4.5. Implementation Limitations 19.2.5. Command Line Interface 19.2.5.1. Command line options 19.3. mailcap — Mailcap file handling 19.4. mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats 19.4.1. Mailbox objects 19.4.1.1. Maildir 19.4.1.2. mbox 19.4.1.3. MH 19.4.1.4. Babyl 19.4.1.5. MMDF 19.4.2. Message objects 19.4.2.1. MaildirMessage 19.4.2.2. mboxMessage 19.4.2.3. MHMessage 19.4.2.4. BabylMessage 19.4.2.5. MMDFMessage 19.4.3. Exceptions 19.4.4. Examples 19.5. mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types 19.5.1. MimeTypes Objects 19.6. base64 — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings 19.7. binhex — Encode and decode binhex4 files 19.7.1. Notes 19.8. binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII 19.9. quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data 19.10. uu — Encode and decode uuencode files 20. Structured Markup Processing Tools 20.1. html — HyperText Markup Language support 20.2. html.parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser 20.2.1. Example HTML Parser Application 20.2.2. HTMLParser Methods 20.2.3. Examples 20.3. html.entities — Definitions of HTML general entities 20.4. XML Processing Modules 20.4.1. XML vulnerabilities 20.4.2. The defusedxml and defusedexpat Packages 20.5. xml.etree.ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API 20.5.1. Tutorial 20.5.1.1. XML tree and elements 20.5.1.2. Parsing XML 20.5.1.3. Pull API for non-blocking parsing 20.5.1.4. Finding interesting elements 20.5.1.5. Modifying an XML File 20.5.1.6. Building XML documents 20.5.1.7. Parsing XML with Namespaces 20.5.1.8. Additional resources 20.5.2. XPath support 20.5.2.1. Example 20.5.2.2. Supported XPath syntax 20.5.3. Reference 20.5.3.1. Functions 20.5.3.2. Element Objects 20.5.3.3. ElementTree Objects 20.5.3.4. QName Objects 20.5.3.5. TreeBuilder Objects 20.5.3.6. XMLParser Objects 20.5.3.7. XMLPullParser Objects 20.5.3.8. Exceptions 20.6. xml.dom — The Document Object Model API 20.6.1. Module Contents 20.6.2. Objects in the DOM 20.6.2.1. DOMImplementation Objects 20.6.2.2. Node Objects 20.6.2.3. NodeList Objects 20.6.2.4. DocumentType Objects 20.6.2.5. Document Objects 20.6.2.6. Element Objects 20.6.2.7. Attr Objects 20.6.2.8. NamedNodeMap Objects 20.6.2.9. Comment Objects 20.6.2.10. Text and CDATASection Objects 20.6.2.11. ProcessingInstruction Objects 20.6.2.12. Exceptions 20.6.3. Conformance 20.6.3.1. Type Mapping 20.6.3.2. Accessor Methods 20.7. xml.dom.minidom — Minimal DOM implementation 20.7.1. DOM Objects 20.7.2. DOM Example 20.7.3. minidom and the DOM standard 20.8. xml.dom.pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees 20.8.1. DOMEventStream Objects 20.9. xml.sax — Support for SAX2 parsers 20.9.1. SAXException Objects 20.10. xml.sax.handler — Base classes for SAX handlers 20.10.1. ContentHandler Objects 20.10.2. DTDHandler Objects 20.10.3. EntityResolver Objects 20.10.4. ErrorHandler Objects 20.11. xml.sax.saxutils — SAX Utilities 20.12. xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers 20.12.1. XMLReader Objects 20.12.2. IncrementalParser Objects 20.12.3. Locator Objects 20.12.4. InputSource Objects 20.12.5. The Attributes Interface 20.12.6. The AttributesNS Interface 20.13. xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat 20.13.1. XMLParser Objects 20.13.2. ExpatError Exceptions 20.13.3. Example 20.13.4. Content Model Descriptions 20.13.5. Expat error constants 21. Internet Protocols and Support 21.1. webbrowser — Convenient Web-browser controller 21.1.1. Browser Controller Objects 21.2. cgi — Common Gateway Interface support 21.2.1. Introduction 21.2.2. Using the cgi module 21.2.3. Higher Level Interface 21.2.4. Functions 21.2.5. Caring about security 21.2.6. Installing your CGI script on a Unix system 21.2.7. Testing your CGI script 21.2.8. Debugging CGI scripts 21.2.9. Common problems and solutions 21.3. cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts 21.4. wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation 21.4.1. wsgiref.util – WSGI environment utilities 21.4.2. wsgiref.headers – WSGI response header tools 21.4.3. wsgiref.simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server 21.4.4. wsgiref.validate — WSGI conformance checker 21.4.5. wsgiref.handlers – server/gateway base classes 21.4.6. Examples 21.5. urllib — URL handling modules 21.6. urllib.request — Extensible library for opening URLs 21.6.1. Request Objects 21.6.2. OpenerDirector Objects 21.6.3. BaseHandler Objects 21.6.4. HTTPRedirectHandler Objects 21.6.5. HTTPCookieProcessor Objects 21.6.6. ProxyHandler Objects 21.6.7. HTTPPasswordMgr Objects 21.6.8. HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects 21.6.9. AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects 21.6.10. HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects 21.6.11. ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects 21.6.12. AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects 21.6.13. HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects 21.6.14. ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects 21.6.15. HTTPHandler Objects 21.6.16. HTTPSHandler Objects 21.6.17. FileHandler Objects 21.6.18. DataHandler Objects 21.6.19. FTPHandler Objects 21.6.20. CacheFTPHandler Objects 21.6.21. UnknownHandler Objects 21.6.22. HTTPErrorProcessor Objects 21.6.23. Examples 21.6.24. Legacy interface 21.6.25. urllib.request Restrictions 21.7. urllib.response — Response classes used by urllib 21.8. urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components 21.8.1. URL Parsing 21.8.2. Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes 21.8.3. Structured Parse Results 21.8.4. URL Quoting 21.9. urllib.error — Exception classes raised by urllib.request 21.10. urllib.robotparser — Parser for robots.txt 21.11. http — HTTP modules 21.11.1. HTTP status codes 21.12. http.client — HTTP protocol client 21.12.1. HTTPConnection Objects 21.12.2. HTTPResponse Objects 21.12.3. Examples 21.12.4. HTTPMessage Objects 21.13. ftplib — FTP protocol client 21.13.1. FTP Objects 21.13.2. FTP_TLS Objects 21.14. poplib — POP3 protocol client 21.14.1. POP3 Objects 21.14.2. POP3 Example 21.15. imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client 21.15.1. IMAP4 Objects 21.15.2. IMAP4 Example 21.16. nntplib — NNTP protocol client 21.16.1. NNTP Objects 21.16.1.1. Attributes 21.16.1.2. Methods 21.16.2. Utility functions 21.17. smtplib — SMTP protocol client 21.17.1. SMTP Objects 21.17.2. SMTP Example 21.18. smtpd — SMTP Server 21.18.1. SMTPServer Objects 21.18.2. DebuggingServer Objects 21.18.3. PureProxy Objects 21.18.4. MailmanProxy Objects 21.18.5. SMTPChannel Objects 21.19. telnetlib — Telnet client 21.19.1. Telnet Objects 21.19.2. Telnet Example 21.20. uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122 21.20.1. Example 21.21. socketserver — A framework for network servers 21.21.1. Server Creation Notes 21.21.2. Server Objects 21.21.3. Request Handler Objects 21.21.4. Examples 21.21.4.1. socketserver.TCPServer Example 21.21.4.2. socketserver.UDPServer Example 21.21.4.3. Asynchronous Mixins 21.22. http.server — HTTP servers 21.23. http.cookies — HTTP state management 21.23.1. Cookie Objects 21.23.2. Morsel Objects 21.23.3. Example 21.24. http.cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients 21.24.1. CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects 21.24.2. FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers 21.24.3. CookiePolicy Objects 21.24.4. DefaultCookiePolicy Objects 21.24.5. Cookie Objec

本课程主要分享当前互联网java架构和java高级热门技术等，由业内技术大牛、行业及实战经验丰富的讲师进行技术分享。

截至 2011-08-29 官方公布的最新 hibernate 文档，此为英文版，配套中文版下载地址：http://download.csdn.net/source/3557584。详细信息：版本：3.6.3.Final，作者：Gavin King, Christian Bauer, Max Rydahl Andersen,Emmanuel Bernard, Steve Ebersole, and Hardy Ferentschik。大小 2.1MB，pdf 格式。内容预览： Preface ............................................................................................................................. xi 1. Tutorial ........................................................................................................................ 1 1.1. Part 1 - The first Hibernate Application ................................................................ 1 1.1.1. Setup ...................................................................................................... 1 1.1.2. The first class .......................................................................................... 3 1.1.3. The mapping file ...................................................................................... 4 1.1.4. Hibernate configuration ............................................................................. 7 1.1.5. Building with Maven ................................................................................. 9 1.1.6. Startup and helpers .................................................................................. 9 1.1.7. Loading and storing objects .................................................................... 10 1.2. Part 2 - Mapping associations ........................................................................... 13 1.2.1. Mapping the Person class ...................................................................... 13 1.2.2. A unidirectional Set-based association ..................................................... 14 1.2.3. Working the association .......................................................................... 15 1.2.4. Collection of values ................................................................................ 17 1.2.5. Bi-directional associations ....................................................................... 19 1.2.6. Working bi-directional links ..................................................................... 19 1.3. Part 3 - The EventManager web application ....................................................... 20 1.3.1. Writing the basic servlet ......................................................................... 20 1.3.2. Processing and rendering ....................................................................... 22 1.3.3. Deploying and testing ............................................................................. 23 1.4. Summary .......................................................................................................... 24 2. Architecture ............................................................................................................... 25 2.1. Overview .......................................................................................................... 25 2.1.1. Minimal architecture ............................................................................... 25 2.1.2. Comprehensive architecture .................................................................... 26 2.1.3. Basic APIs ............................................................................................. 27 2.2. JMX Integration ................................................................................................ 28 2.3. Contextual sessions .......................................................................................... 28 3. Configuration ............................................................................................................. 31 3.1. Programmatic configuration ............................................................................... 31 3.2. Obtaining a SessionFactory ............................................................................... 32 3.3. JDBC connections ............................................................................................ 32 3.4. Optional configuration properties ........................................................................ 34 3.4.1. SQL Dialects .......................................................................................... 42 3.4.2. Outer Join Fetching ................................................................................ 43 3.4.3. Binary Streams ...................................................................................... 43 3.4.4. Second-level and query cache ................................................................ 43 3.4.5. Query Language Substitution .................................................................. 43 3.4.6. Hibernate statistics ................................................................................. 44 3.5. Logging ............................................................................................................ 44 3.6. Implementing a NamingStrategy ........................................................................ 45 3.7. Implementing a PersisterClassProvider .............................................................. 45 3.8. XML configuration file ........................................................................................ 46 HIBERNATE - Relational Persis... iv 3.9. Java EE Application Server integration ............................................................... 47 3.9.1. Transaction strategy configuration ........................................................... 47 3.9.2. JNDI-bound SessionFactory .................................................................... 49 3.9.3. Current Session context management with JTA ........................................ 49 3.9.4. JMX deployment .................................................................................... 50 4. Persistent Classes ..................................................................................................... 53 4.1. A simple POJO example ................................................................................... 53 4.1.1. Implement a no-argument constructor ...................................................... 54 4.1.2. Provide an identifier property .................................................................. 55 4.1.3. Prefer non-final classes (semi-optional) ................................................... 55 4.1.4. Declare accessors and mutators for persistent fields (optional) .................. 56 4.2. Implementing inheritance ................................................................................... 56 4.3. Implementing equals() and hashCode() .............................................................. 57 4.4. Dynamic models ............................................................................................... 58 4.5. Tuplizers .......................................................................................................... 60 4.6. EntityNameResolvers ........................................................................................ 61 5. Basic O/R Mapping .................................................................................................... 65 5.1. Mapping declaration .......................................................................................... 65 5.1.1. Entity ..................................................................................................... 68 5.1.2. Identifiers ............................................................................................... 73 5.1.3. Optimistic locking properties (optional) ..................................................... 91 5.1.4. Property ................................................................................................. 94 5.1.5. Embedded objects (aka components) .................................................... 103 5.1.6. Inheritance strategy .............................................................................. 106 5.1.7. Mapping one to one and one to many associations ................................. 117 5.1.8. Natural-id ............................................................................................. 126 5.1.9. Any ...................................................................................................... 127 5.1.10. Properties .......................................................................................... 129 5.1.11. Some hbm.xml specificities ................................................................. 130 5.2. Hibernate types ............................................................................................... 134 5.2.1. Entities and values ............................................................................... 134 5.2.2. Basic value types ................................................................................. 135 5.2.3. Custom value types .............................................................................. 137 5.3. Mapping a class more than once ..................................................................... 138 5.4. SQL quoted identifiers ..................................................................................... 139 5.5. Generated properties ....................................................................................... 139 5.6. Column transformers: read and write expressions ............................................. 140 5.7. Auxiliary database objects ............................................................................... 141 6. Types ....................................................................................................................... 143 6.1. Value types .................................................................................................... 143 6.1.1. Basic value types ................................................................................. 143 6.1.2. Composite types .................................................................................. 149 6.1.3. Collection types .................................................................................... 149 6.2. Entity types ..................................................................................................... 150 v 6.3. Significance of type categories ......................................................................... 150 6.4. Custom types .................................................................................................. 150 6.4.1. Custom types using org.hibernate.type.Type .......................................... 150 6.4.2. Custom types using org.hibernate.usertype.UserType ............................. 152 6.4.3. Custom types using org.hibernate.usertype.CompositeUserType ............. 153 6.5. Type registry ................................................................................................... 155 7. Collection mapping .................................................................................................. 157 7.1. Persistent collections ....................................................................................... 157 7.2. How to map collections ................................................................................... 158 7.2.1. Collection foreign keys .......................................................................... 162 7.2.2. Indexed collections ............................................................................... 162 7.2.3. Collections of basic types and embeddable objects ................................. 168 7.3. Advanced collection mappings ......................................................................... 170 7.3.1. Sorted collections ................................................................................. 170 7.3.2. Bidirectional associations ...................................................................... 171 7.3.3. Bidirectional associations with indexed collections .................................. 176 7.3.4. Ternary associations ............................................................................. 177 7.3.5. Using an ................................................................................. 178 7.4. Collection examples ........................................................................................ 179 8. Association Mappings ............................................................................................. 185 8.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................... 185 8.2. Unidirectional associations ............................................................................... 185 8.2.1. Many-to-one ......................................................................................... 185 8.2.2. One-to-one ........................................................................................... 185 8.2.3. One-to-many ........................................................................................ 186 8.3. Unidirectional associations with join tables ........................................................ 187 8.3.1. One-to-many ........................................................................................ 187 8.3.2. Many-to-one ......................................................................................... 188 8.3.3. One-to-one ........................................................................................... 188 8.3.4. Many-to-many ...................................................................................... 189 8.4. Bidirectional associations ................................................................................. 190 8.4.1. one-to-many / many-to-one ................................................................... 190 8.4.2. One-to-one ........................................................................................... 191 8.5. Bidirectional associations with join tables .......................................................... 192 8.5.1. one-to-many / many-to-one ................................................................... 192 8.5.2. one to one ........................................................................................... 193 8.5.3. Many-to-many ...................................................................................... 193 8.6. More complex association mappings ................................................................ 194 9. Component Mapping ................................................................................................ 197 9.1. Dependent objects .......................................................................................... 197 9.2. Collections of dependent objects ...................................................................... 199 9.3. Components as Map indices ............................................................................ 200 9.4. Components as composite identifiers ............................................................... 200 9.5. Dynamic components ...................................................................................... 202 HIBERNATE - Relational Persis... vi 10. Inheritance mapping .............................................................................................. 205 10.1. The three strategies ...................................................................................... 205 10.1.1. Table per class hierarchy .................................................................... 205 10.1.2. Table per subclass ............................................................................. 206 10.1.3. Table per subclass: using a discriminator ............................................. 206 10.1.4. Mixing table per class hierarchy with table per subclass ........................ 207 10.1.5. Table per concrete class ..................................................................... 208 10.1.6. Table per concrete class using implicit polymorphism ............................ 209 10.1.7. Mixing implicit polymorphism with other inheritance mappings ................ 210 10.2. Limitations .................................................................................................... 210 11. Working with objects ............................................................................................. 213 11.1. Hibernate object states .................................................................................. 213 11.2. Making objects persistent .............................................................................. 213 11.3. Loading an object .......................................................................................... 214 11.4. Querying ....................................................................................................... 216 11.4.1. Executing queries ............................................................................... 216 11.4.2. Filtering collections ............................................................................. 220 11.4.3. Criteria queries ................................................................................... 221 11.4.4. Queries in native SQL ........................................................................ 221 11.5. Modifying persistent objects ........................................................................... 222 11.6. Modifying detached objects ............................................................................ 222 11.7. Automatic state detection ............................................................................... 223 11.8. Deleting persistent objects ............................................................................. 224 11.9. Replicating object between two different datastores ......................................... 225 11.10. Flushing the Session ................................................................................... 225 11.11. Transitive persistence .................................................................................. 226 11.12. Using metadata ........................................................................................... 229 12. Read-only entities .................................................................................................. 231 12.1. Making persistent entities read-only ................................................................ 231 12.1.1. Entities of immutable classes .............................................................. 232 12.1.2. Loading persistent entities as read-only ............................................... 232 12.1.3. Loading read-only entities from an HQL query/criteria ........................... 233 12.1.4. Making a persistent entity read-only ..................................................... 234 12.2. Read-only affect on property type ................................................................... 235 12.2.1. Simple properties ................................................................................ 236 12.2.2. Unidirectional associations .................................................................. 237 12.2.3. Bidirectional associations .................................................................... 238 13. Transactions and Concurrency .............................................................................. 241 13.1. Session and transaction scopes ..................................................................... 241 13.1.1. Unit of work ....................................................................................... 241 13.1.2. Long conversations ............................................................................. 242 13.1.3. Considering object identity .................................................................. 243 13.1.4. Common issues .................................................................................. 244 13.2. Database transaction demarcation .................................................................. 245 vii 13.2.1. Non-managed environment ................................................................. 246 13.2.2. Using JTA .......................................................................................... 247 13.2.3. Exception handling ............................................................................. 248 13.2.4. Transaction timeout ............................................................................ 249 13.3. Optimistic concurrency control ........................................................................ 250 13.3.1. Application version checking ............................................................... 250 13.3.2. Extended session and automatic versioning ......................................... 251 13.3.3. Detached objects and automatic versioning .......................................... 252 13.3.4. Customizing automatic versioning ........................................................ 252 13.4. Pessimistic locking ........................................................................................ 253 13.5. Connection release modes ............................................................................ 254 14. Interceptors and events ......................................................................................... 257 14.1. Interceptors ................................................................................................... 257 14.2. Event system ................................................................................................ 259 14.3. Hibernate declarative security ........................................................................ 260 15. Batch processing ................................................................................................... 263 15.1. Batch inserts ................................................................................................. 263 15.2. Batch updates ............................................................................................... 264 15.3. The StatelessSession interface ...................................................................... 264 15.4. DML-style operations ..................................................................................... 265 16. HQL: The Hibernate Query Language .................................................................... 269 16.1. Case Sensitivity ............................................................................................ 269 16.2. The from clause ............................................................................................ 269 16.3. Associations and joins ................................................................................... 270 16.4. Forms of join syntax ...................................................................................... 271 16.5. Referring to identifier property ........................................................................ 272 16.6. The select clause .......................................................................................... 272 16.7. Aggregate functions ....................................................................................... 274 16.8. Polymorphic queries ...................................................................................... 274 16.9. The where clause .......................................................................................... 275 16.10. Expressions ................................................................................................ 277 16.11. The order by clause .................................................................................... 281 16.12. The group by clause .................................................................................... 281 16.13. Subqueries .................................................................................................. 282 16.14. HQL examples ............................................................................................ 283 16.15. Bulk update and delete ................................................................................ 285 16.16. Tips & Tricks ............................................................................................... 285 16.17. Components ................................................................................................ 286 16.18. Row value constructor syntax ....................................................................... 287 17. Criteria Queries ...................................................................................................... 289 17.1. Creating a Criteria instance ........................................................................... 289 17.2. Narrowing the result set ................................................................................. 289 17.3. Ordering the results ....................................................................................... 290 17.4. Associations .................................................................................................. 291 HIBERNATE - Relational Persis... viii 17.5. Dynamic association fetching ......................................................................... 292 17.6. Example queries ........................................................................................... 292 17.7. Projections, aggregation and grouping ............................................................ 293 17.8. Detached queries and subqueries .................................................................. 295 17.9. Queries by natural identifier ........................................................................... 295 18. Native SQL ............................................................................................................. 297 18.1. Using a SQLQuery ........................................................................................ 297 18.1.1. Scalar queries .................................................................................... 297 18.1.2. Entity queries ..................................................................................... 298 18.1.3. Handling associations and collections .................................................. 298 18.1.4. Returning multiple entities ................................................................... 299 18.1.5. Returning non-managed entities .......................................................... 301 18.1.6. Handling inheritance ........................................................................... 301 18.1.7. Parameters ........................................................................................ 301 18.2. Named SQL queries ...................................................................................... 302 18.2.1. Using return-property to explicitly specify column/alias names ................ 308 18.2.2. Using stored procedures for querying ................................................... 309 18.3. Custom SQL for create, update and delete ..................................................... 310 18.4. Custom SQL for loading ................................................................................ 313 19. Filtering data .......................................................................................................... 315 19.1. Hibernate filters ............................................................................................. 315 20. XML Mapping ......................................................................................................... 319 20.1. Working with XML data ................................................................................. 319 20.1.1. Specifying XML and class mapping together ........................................ 319 20.1.2. Specifying only an XML mapping ......................................................... 320 20.2. XML mapping metadata ................................................................................. 320 20.3. Manipulating XML data .................................................................................. 322 21. Improving performance .......................................................................................... 325 21.1. Fetching strategies ........................................................................................ 325 21.1.1. Working with lazy associations ............................................................ 326 21.1.2. Tuning fetch strategies ........................................................................ 326 21.1.3. Single-ended association proxies ......................................................... 327 21.1.4. Initializing collections and proxies ........................................................ 329 21.1.5. Using batch fetching ........................................................................... 331 21.1.6. Using subselect fetching ..................................................................... 331 21.1.7. Fetch profiles ..................................................................................... 332 21.1.8. Using lazy property fetching ................................................................ 334 21.2. The Second Level Cache .............................................................................. 334 21.2.1. Cache mappings ................................................................................ 335 21.2.2. Strategy: read only ............................................................................. 338 21.2.3. Strategy: read/write ............................................................................. 338 21.2.4. Strategy: nonstrict read/write ............................................................... 338 21.2.5. Strategy: transactional ........................................................................ 338 21.2.6. Cache-provider/concurrency-strategy compatibility ................................ 338 ix 21.3. Managing the caches .................................................................................... 339 21.4. The Query Cache .......................................................................................... 340 21.4.1. Enabling query caching ....................................................................... 341 21.4.2. Query cache regions .......................................................................... 342 21.5. Understanding Collection performance ............................................................ 342 21.5.1. Taxonomy .......................................................................................... 342 21.5.2. Lists, maps, idbags and sets are the most efficient collections to update ... 343 21.5.3. Bags and lists are the most efficient inverse collections ......................... 343 21.5.4. One shot delete .................................................................................. 344 21.6. Monitoring performance ................................................................................. 344 21.6.1. Monitoring a SessionFactory ............................................................... 344 21.6.2. Metrics ............................................................................................... 345 22. Toolset Guide ......................................................................................................... 347 22.1. Automatic schema generation ........................................................................ 347 22.1.1. Customizing the schema ..................................................................... 347 22.1.2. Running the tool ................................................................................. 350 22.1.3. Properties .......................................................................................... 351 22.1.4. Using Ant ........................................................................................... 351 22.1.5. Incremental schema updates ............................................................... 352 22.1.6. Using Ant for incremental schema updates ........................................... 352 22.1.7. Schema validation .............................................................................. 353 22.1.8. Using Ant for schema validation .......................................................... 353 23. Additional modules ................................................................................................ 355 23.1. Bean Validation ............................................................................................. 355 23.1.1. Adding Bean Validation ....................................................................... 355 23.1.2. Configuration ...................................................................................... 355 23.1.3. Catching violations .............................................................................. 357 23.1.4. Database schema ............................................................................... 357 23.2. Hibernate Search .......................................................................................... 358 23.2.1. Description ......................................................................................... 358 23.2.2. Integration with Hibernate Annotations ................................................. 358 24. Example: Parent/Child ............................................................................................ 359 24.1. A note about collections ................................................................................ 359 24.2. Bidirectional one-to-many ............................................................................... 359 24.3. Cascading life cycle ...................................................................................... 361 24.4. Cascades and unsaved-value ........................................................................ 362 24.5. Conclusion .................................................................................................... 363 25. Example: Weblog Application ................................................................................ 365 25.1. Persistent Classes ......................................................................................... 365 25.2. Hibernate Mappings ...................................................................................... 366 25.3. Hibernate Code ............................................................................................. 368 26. Example: Various Mappings .................................................................................. 373 26.1. Employer/Employee ....................................................................................... 373 26.2. Author/Work .................................................................................................. 375 HIBERNATE - Relational Persis... x 26.3. Customer/Order/Product ................................................................................ 377 26.4. Miscellaneous example mappings .................................................................. 379 26.4.1. "Typed" one-to-one association ........................................................... 379 26.4.2. Composite key example ...................................................................... 379 26.4.3. Many-to-many with shared composite key attribute ............................... 381 26.4.4. Content based discrimination ............................................................... 382 26.4.5. Associations on alternate keys ............................................................ 383 27. Best Practices ........................................................................................................ 385 28. Database Portability Considerations ...................................................................... 389 28.1. Portability Basics ........................................................................................... 389 28.2. Dialect .......................................................................................................... 389 28.3. Dialect resolution ........................................................................................... 389 28.4. Identifier generation ....................................................................................... 390 28.5. Database functions ........................................................................................ 391 28.6. Type mappings ............................................................................................. 391 References .................................................................................................................... 3

9.3.1 Monitoring and Fixing Errors ...............................350 9.3.2 Alex King’s 404 Notifier Plugin .....................................................351 9.3.3 Broken Link Checker Plugin ........................................................351 9.3.4 Other Error-Logging Techniques .................................................352 9.3.5 Online Monitoring Services ........................................................352 9.4.1 Staying Current with WordPress .........................355 9.4.2 Updating WordPress .................................................................355 9.4.3 Logging Changes ....................................................................356 9.4.4 Backing Up Your Database and Files ..............................................357 9.5.1 Optimizing WordPress ...........................................358 9.5.2 Content and File Caching ..........................................................359 9.5.3 File Compression Methods ........................................................360 9.5.4 Optimizing CSS and JavaScript ...................................................362 9.5.5 Reducing the Number of HTTP Requests .......................................363 9.5.6 Plugin Maintenance .................................................................368 9.5.7 Database Maintenance ..............................................................369 9.5.8 Other Optimization Techniques ..................................................368 Contents 1 Welcome to WordPress 1.1.1 Welcome ........................................................................9 1.1.2 Why WordPress is Amazing ............................................................9 1.1.3. How to Setup and Configure WordPress .........................................10 1.1.4 How to Implement Advanced Functionality .....................................10 1.1.5 How to Optimize and Secure WordPress .........................................10 1.1.6 How to Maintain Your WordPress Site .............................................11 1.1.7 Don’t Worry ..............................................................................12 1.2.1 So, You’ve Never Heard of WordPress ..................12 1.2.2 One Template, Many Pages ..........................................................13 1.2.3 Powerful, Flexible and Extensible ...................................................14 1.3.1 Key Components of a WordPress Site ..................15 1.3.2 WordPress Core Files ..................................................................15 1.3.3 The WordPress Database .............................................................15 1.3.4 The Back End ............................................................................17 1.3.5 The Front End ...........................................................................17 1.4.1 Tools of the Trade ......................................................18 1.4.2 A Domain Name ........................................................................18 1.4.3 Web Host / Server ......................................................................18 1.4.4 Text / Code Editor ......................................................................19 1.4.5 FTP Program .............................................................................19 2 Setting Up WordPress 2.1.1 The Famous Five Minute Install .............................23 2.1.2 Where To Install? .......................................................................23 2.1.3 Checking Default Performance .....................................................24 2.2.1 OK, I’m In. Now What? .............................................25 2.2.2 Just Publish Something! .............................................................25 2.2.3 Go Look At It! ...........................................................................25 2.2.4 The Plan ..................................................................................26 2.3.1 Permalinks: Your URL Structure ............................26 2.3.2 HTAccess .................................................................................27 2.3.3 Which Style of Permalinks? ..........................................................28 2.3.4 Pick One and Stick With It ...........................................................29 2.3.5 SEO Consideration: Mind Your Post “Slugs” ......................................29 2.4.1 Categories and Tags .................................................30 2.4.2 They Are Basically the Same ........................................................32 2.4.3 Use Only One Category Per Post ...................................................32 2.4.4 Use Multiple Tags Per Post ..........................................................33 2.4.5 Don’t Go Overboard! ..................................................................33 2.4.6 You Don’t Need to Use Them At All ...............................................34 2.4.7 Custom Taxonomies ..................................................................34 2.5.1 Users and Administrators ........................................37 2.5.2 Add a New Account for Yourself ...................................................39 2.6.1 Choosing the Perfect Theme .................................40 2.6.2 Where to Find Awesome Themes..................................................40 2.6.3 Previewing Themes ...................................................................41 2.6.4 Key Things to Look For in a Theme ...............................................41 2.7.1 Getting Started with Plugins ...................................44 2.7.2 Installing and Activating Plugins ....................................................44 2.7.3 Difference Between Disabling and Uninstalling .................................45 2.7.4 Recommended Plugins ...............................................................46 3 Anatomy of a WordPress Theme 3.1.1 Understanding Theme Files ....................................51 3.1.2 Every Theme is Different .............................................................51 3.1.3 Commonly Used Theme Files .......................................................53 3.1.4 How Theme Files Work Together...................................................54 3.2.1 Understanding Different Page Views ...................54 3.2.2 Page Views are for Pages .............................................................55 3.2.3 Single Views are for Posts ............................................................55 3.2.4 The Many Faces of Archive Views .................................................56 3.2.5 Which File Renders What? ............................................................57 3.3.1 Kicking It Off with the Header ...............................58 3.3.2 The DOCTYPE and HTML Attributes ..............................................58 3.3.3 META Elements .........................................................................59 3.3.4 The Title ..................................................................................59 3.3.5 Link Elements ...........................................................................61 3.3.6 The wp_head() Function .............................................................64 3.3.7 Template Tags ...........................................................................65 3.4.1 The WordPress Loop .................................................67 3.4.2 The Loop in Plain English ............................................................68 3.4.3 The Loop Just Knows .................................................................69 3.4.4 Some Common “Loop Only” Functions ..........................................70 3.4.5 Some Common “Outside Loop” Functions .......................................71 3.5.1 Comments ....................................................................71 3.5.2 The comments.php File ..............................................................71 3.5.3 Selective Inclusion for Different Views ............................................72 3.6.1 The Sidebar .................................................................74 3.6.2 Purpose and Placement ..............................................................74 3.6.3 Popular Sidebar Functions ...........................................................75 3.6.4 Widgets, Widgets, Widgets ...........................................................78 3.7.1 The Search Form ........................................................79 3.7.2 Why is This a Separate File? ..........................................................79 3.7.3 Alternatives to WordPress Search ...................................................80 3.8.1 The Footer ...................................................................81 3.8.2 The wp_footer() Hook ................................................................81 3.8.3 Mini Footers / Mega Footers .........................................................82 3.9.1 Theme Functions .......................................................83 3.9.2 Functions are for Specific Themes .................................................83 3.9.3 Advantage Over Core Hacks ........................................................84 4 Theme Design and Development 4.1.1 Customizing the Loop ..............................................87 4.1.2 The Loop Doesn’t Care About Markup ............................................88 4.1.3 The Power of query_posts ...........................................................90 4.1.4 Displaying Different Numbers of Posts ............................................91 4.1.5 Excluding Specific Categories .......................................................91 4.1.6 Changing the Sort Order .............................................................92 4.1.7 Show Specific Pages, Embed a Page within a Page ............................92 4.1.8 Using Multiple Loops ..................................................................92 4.2.1 Sidebars and Footers ................................................96 4.2.2 Multiple Sidebars .......................................................................96 4.3.1 Menus, Archive Lists & Tag Clouds .......................99 4.3.2 Page-Specific Menu Styles ..........................................................101 4.3.3 Create the Perfect Archives Page ..................................................103 4.3.4 Impress Your Visitors with a Tag Cloud .........................................105 4.4.1 Side Content and Useful Menu Items ................105 4.4.2 Displaying Recent Comments .....................................................106 4.4.3 Displaying Recent Posts .............................................................107 4.4.4. Listing Popular Posts .................................................................108 4.4.5 Listing Recently Modified Posts ....................................................109 4.4.6 Listing Random Posts ................................................................110 4.4.7 Import and Display Twitter .........................................................110 4.4.8 Import and Display Delicious ......................................................113 4.4.9 Import and Display Other Content ...............................................114 4.5.1 Creating and Using Child Themes .....................117 4.6.1 Styling Your Theme ................................................118 4.6.2 Different Inclusion Methods ........................................................119 4.6.3 To Reset or Not To Reset? ..........................................................120 4.6.4 Basic CSS Optimization ..............................................................121 4.7.1 Using Multiple Themes ...........................................123 4.8.1 Widgetizing ...............................................................126 5 Extending Functionality 5.1.1 Extensibility ...............................................................131 5.1.2 Extending WordPress with Plugins ................................................131 5.1.3 A Plugin for (Almost) Everything ..................................................131 5.1.4 Do You Need a Plugin? ...............................................................135 5.1.5 Choosing the Perfect Plugin ........................................................136 5.2.1 Plugin Usage and Maintenance ..........................138 5.2.2 Sequential Installation ...............................................................138 5.2.3 Keep Plugins Up-To-Date ...........................................................138 5.2.4 Subscribe to Plugin Comment Threads .........................................139 5.2.5 Getting Help with Plugins ...........................................................140 5.2.6 Diagnosing Plugin Conflicts ........................................................140 5.2.7 Disabling and Uninstalling Plugins ................................................141 5.2.8 Share Your Experience with Others ...............................................143 5.3.1 Extending with Custom Functions .....................144 5.3.2 Plugins vs. Theme Functions .......................................................145 5.3.3 Useful Examples of Theme Functions ............................................146 5.3.4 Example #1: Easy Admin Buttons for Comments .............................146 5.3.5 Example #2: Sitewide Shortcode Functionality ................................147 5.3.6 Example #3: Transferring Plugins to functions.php ...........................149 5.3.7 Example #4: Transferring Functions to a Plugin ..............................150 5.4.1 Other Ways to Extend Functionality ..................151 5.4.2 Functions Within Theme Files .....................................................151 5.4.3 Hacking the WordPress Core .......................................................153 5.5.1 WordPress as a CMS ................................................154 5.5.2 CMS Features Built Into WordPress ...............................................154 5.5.3 Working With Custom Fields .......................................................155 5.5.4 Users, Roles and Permissions ......................................................160 5.5.5 Categorizing, Tagging, and Custom Taxonomies .............................161 5.5.6 Page Templates ........................................................................162 5.5.7 Page, Category, and Tag Heirarchies .............................................163 5.5.8 Dynamic Menus .......................................................................165 5.6.1 Extending CMS Functionality ...............................166 5.6.2 CMS-Related Plugins .................................................................166 5.6.3 Using WordPress as a Forum .......................................................171 5.6.4 Integration with Third-Party Forum Applications .............................172 5.6.5 Multiple Blogs with WordPress MU ...............................................173 6 Working with RSS Feeds 6.1.1 Working with RSS Feeds ........................................177 6.1.2 Quick Introduction to Feeds ........................................................177 6.1.3 Dynamic Publishing and Content Distribution .................................177 6.1.4 The Pros and Cons of Delivering RSS Feeds ....................................178 6.2.1 Different Types of WordPress Feeds ...................178 6.2.2 Posts Feed .............................................................................180 6.2.3 Comments Feed ......................................................................180 6.2.4 Individual Post Comments Feed ..................................................181 6.2.5 Category and Tag Feeds ............................................................181 6.2.6 Other Feed Types .....................................................................182 6.3.1 Feed Configurations and Formats ......................183 6.3.2 Full Feeds ...............................................................................185 6.3.3 Partial Feeds ............................................................................186 6.3.4 Number of Posts ......................................................................186 6.3.5 WordPress Feed Formats ............................................................187 6.4.1 Using FeedBurner For Feed Delivery .................190 6.4.2 Benefits of Using FeedBurner ......................................................190 6.4.3 Setting Up and Configuring a FeedBurner Account ..........................192 6.4.4 Redirecting to FeedBurner via Plugin ............................................192 6.4.5 - Redirecting to FeedBurner via HTAccess ......................................193 6.4.6 Redirecting to FeedBurner via PHP ...............................................195 6.5.1 Tracking and Displaying Statistics ......................197 6.5.2 Types of Statistics Provided by FeedBurner .....................................197 6.5.3 Displaying FeedBurner Statistics ..................................................198 6.5.4 Alternatives to FeedBurner .........................................................199 6.6.1 Customizing Feeds .................................................201 6.6.2 Formatting Feed Images ...........................................................203 6.6.3 Adding a Custom Feed Image ....................................................204 6.6.4 Include Comments in Feeds ......................................................206 6.6.5 Creating Custom Feeds.............................................................208 6.6.6 More Feed Customization Tricks ..................................................212 6.6.7 Styling Feeds ...........................................................................213 6.6.8 Removing the WordPress Version Number .....................................213 6.6.9 Disable and Redirect Unwanted Feed Formats ................................215 6.6.10 Insert Custom Content into Feeds ..............................................216 6.6.11 Importing and Displaying External Feeds ......................................218 6.6.12 Buffer Period After Posting ........................................................219 6.6.13 Protecting Feed Content ...........................................................221 6.7.1 Validating Feeds .......................................................223 6.7.2 Diagnosing and Troubleshooting Errors ........................................224 7 Working with Comments 7.1.1 Optimizing the Comments Area ..........................227 7.1.2 Welcome to the WordPress Comments Area ..................................228 7.1.3 About the WordPress Comment System ........................................228 7.1.4 Comments, Pingbacks and Trackbacks ..........................................227 7.1.5 Anatomy of the WordPress Comment Area ....................................229 7.2.1 Syndicating Comments 7.2.2 WordPress Main Comments Feed .................................................233 7.2.3 Post-Specific Comment Feeds ....................................................234 7.3.1 Formatting the Comments Area ..........................235 7.3.2 Using wp_list_comments() or a Custom Loop? ................................237 7.3.3 Implementing Paged Comments .................................................243 7.3.4 Implementing Threaded Comments ............................................245 7.3.5 Separating comments, pingbacks and trackbacks ............................249 7.3.6 Eliminating Pingbacks and Trackbacks ..........................................252 7.3.7 Control Directly with the Database ...............................................255 7.4.1 Customizing Comment Display ...........................256 7.4.2 Numbering Comments Globally and Locally ..................................256 7.4.3 Alternating Comment Styles .......................................................260 7.4.4 Custom Styles for Authors and Members ........................................261 7.4.5 Styling Comments with Gravatars ................................................263 7.4.6 Add a Message ........................................................................265 7.4.7 Moderation Links in the Theme Itself ............................................267 7.4.8 Display Comment, Ping/Trackback Counts ....................................268 7.5.1 Optimizing the Comment Form ..........................269 7.5.2 Setup Comment Previews .........................................................269 7.5.3 Rich-Text Editors for Comments ..................................................270 7.5.4 Adding Comment Quicktags ......................................................272 7.5.5 Comment Management and Spam Prevention ................................274 7.6.1 Controlling Comment Spam .................................274 7.6.2 WordPress’ Built-In Anti-Spam Functionality ..................................275 7.6.3 Anti-Spam Plugins for WordPress .................................................276 7.7.1 Other Considerations & Techniques ...................278 7.7.2 Enhancing and Encouraging Comments .......................................278 7.7.3 “nofollow” Links ........................................................................279 7.7.4 Integrating Twitter ....................................................................282 8 Search Engine Optimization 8.1.1 SEO Strengths and Weaknesses .........................285 8.1.2 Strong Focus on Content ..........................................................285 8.1.3 Built-In “nofollow” Comment Links ..............................................286 8.1.4 Duplicate Content Issues ...........................................................286 8.2.1 Controlling Duplicate Content ............................287 8.2.2 Meta noindex and nofollow Tags ................................................288 8.2.3 Nofollow attributes ...................................................................291 8.2.4 Robots.txt Directives ................................................................293 8.2.5 Canonical Meta Tags .................................................................297 8.2.6 Use Excerpts for Posts ..............................................................299 8.3.1 Optimizing Permalink Structure .........................300 8.3.2 Default URLs vs. “Pretty” Permalinks .............................................300 8.3.3 Keep Permalinks Short ...............................................................301 8.3.4 Maximize Permalink Keywords ...................................................303 8.4.1 Scoring with Google ...............................................305 8.4.2 Content, Content, Content ........................................................305 8.4.3 Detecting Duplicate Content ......................................................305 8.4.4 Optimizing Heading Elements .....................................................307 8.4.5 Optimizing Title Tags ...............................................................308 8.4.6 The nofollow Wars ....................................................................310 8.4.7 Fixing Broken Links ...................................................................310 8.4.8 Using a Sitemap .......................................................................312 8.4.9 Other SEO tips .........................................................................313 8.4.10 SEO-Related plugins ................................................................314 8.5.1 Tracking the Success of Your Site .......................316 8.5.2 Statistical WordPress plugins .......................................................316 8.5.3 Shaun Inman’s Mint Stats ...........................................................317 8.5.4 Google Analytics ......................................................................318 8.5.5 Other Metrics ..........................................................................319 8.6.1 Closing Thoughts on SEO .....................................320 9 Maintaining a Healthy Site 9.1.1 Keeping a Site Healthy ...........................................323 9.1.2 Securing WordPress ...................................................................323 9.1.3 Setting Secure File Permissions ...................................................324 9.1.4 Disabling Directory Views ..........................................................326 9.1.5 Forbid Access to Sensitive Files ...................................................328 9.1.6 Neuter the Default “admin” User Account .......................................339 9.1.7 Remove the WordPress Version Number .......................................340 9.1.8 Securing Your Database .............................................................341 9.1.9 Secure Multiple Installations .......................................................344 9.1.10 Prevent Hotlinking ..................................................................344 9.1.11 More WordPress Security Help ...................................................345 9.2.1 Stopping Comment Spam ....................................346 9.2.2 Configuring Your WordPress Admin Options...................................347 9.2.3 Using the Built-In Comment Moderation ......................................348 9.2.4 Using the Built-In Comment Blacklist ...........................................348 9.2.5 Disabling Comments on Old Posts ..............................................349 9.2.6 Deny Access to No-Referrer Requests ..........................................349

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