使用Easy UI插件的tree菜单时报了一个：Object [object Object] has no method 'tree'的错

jquery easy ui demo

jquery easy ui Demo 框架：包含ui所有插件(pagination、datagrid、tree等)，还有一些实例

Visual C++ 编程资源大全（英文源码 控件）

1,01.zip<br>3D Text<br>显示3D文字(6KB)<END><br>2,02.zip<br>A button within a button<br>按纽中的按纽(13KB)<END><br>3,03.zip<br>Flat Owner Drawn Buttons<br>浮动的自画按纽(13KB)<END><br>4,04.zip<br>Flat-look Buttons <br>浮动的工具条按纽(6KB)<END><br>5,05.zip<br>Showing disabled combo text in black<br>ComboBox的只读属性(5KB)<END><br>6,06.zip<br>Combobox Color Picker <br>选择颜色的ComboBox(6KB)<END><br>7,07.zip<br>Switch between drop down & drop list mode <br>处理drop down和drop list方式之间的转换(32KB)<END><br>8,08.zip<br>Drop down a popdown window instead of a dropdown list from a combobox 在ComboBox中用Drop down方式代替dropdown list方式(32KB)<END><br>9,09.zip<br>Change listbox width of combo boxes<br>在ComboBox中改变列表框的宽度(2KB)<END><br>10,10.zip<br>Owner Drawn Font Selection ComboBox <br>自画的字体选择ComboBox(5KB)<END><br>11,add.zip<br>This sample was developed on stage at the Washington Software Association's WinSIG meeting on the ninth of September, 1996 using Visual C++ 4.2. (13KB)<END><br>12,apibrow.zip<br>The project demonstrates the use of common control callback items in an MFC applicationthat manages a CListCtrl control in a CListView. (16KB)<END><br>13,colorlb.zip<br>The COLORLB sample shows how to implement an owner-draw list box. (53KB)<END><br>14,comper.zip<br>COMPER is an example of the ATL Composite Control. (123KB)<END><br>15,custfile.zip<br>This sample shows how to add a couple of extra buttons to a CFileDialog. (23KB)<END><br>16,custlist.zip<br>CUSTLIST shows how to use custom draw in a list view control. (23KB)<END><br>17,div.zip<br>This sample shows how floating-point exceptions may be captured and handled in an MFC application. (14KB)<END><br>18,doodads.zip<br>The project demonstrates many Windows common controls, including the extensive use of image lists. (83KB)<END><br>19,doubleedit.zip<br>DOULBEEDIT shows how to sublcass an edit control inside a form view and react to double-clicks on the edit control by handling the WM_LBTNDOUBLECLICK message. (18KB)<END><br>20,dumpsome.zip<br>DUMPSOME is a project for Visual C++ 4.x that shows how to write a CGI server extension which uses MFC and DAO. (8KB)<END><br>21,edpos.zip<br>EDPOS is a MDI-based MFC application that shows an edit control in its primary view. (35KB)<END><br>22,edstream.zip<br>this sample shows how to use the StreamIn() and StreamOut() members of the CRichEditCtrl class in MFC. (36KB)<END><br>23,findrich.zip<br>RICHFIND is a dialog-based MFC application for Visual C++ 6.0. (24KB)<END><br>24,floatlist.zip<br>The FloatList sample is an MFC-based SDI application with an edit view as its main window. (49KB)<END><br>25,fully.zip<br>FULLY shows how to make an MFC application make one of its views go full-screen active. (43KB)<END><br>26,holder.zip<br>HOLDER contains the Internet Explorer web browser control using CHtmlView in an MFC application. (67KB)<END><br>27,langload.zip<br>LANGLOAD shows how to use the LANGUAGE keyword in a resource file to mark language-specific resources. (2KB)<END><br>28,listfind.zip<br>This sample shows how to use the CList<> template. (9KB)<END><br>29,ndbrow.zip<br>This Visual C++ 6 project shows how to create an MDI application that hosts CHtmlView (20KB)<END><br>30,mfctalk.zip<br>MFCTALK was originally published with Mike's article on ISPAI programming with MFC in the May (23KB)<END><br>31,mfctlist.zip<br>MCTTLIST is a dialog-based application that provides the same functionality as the TLIST sample in the SDK. (28KB)<END><br>32,mruless.zip<br>MRULESS shows a way to strip the empty "Recent Files" item off the "File" menu when there are no entries in the MRU. (32KB)<END><br>33,mtprint.zip<br>MTPRINT demonstrates the use of a secondary thread to perform printing in an application that uses MFC's document/view architecture. (21KB)<END><br>34,multitop.zip<br>MULTITOP shows how to write an SDI application which has multiple top level windows and uses the MFC doc/view architecture.(30KB)<END><br>35,njfind16.zip<br>This 16-bit DOS tool traverses all directories on all drives on your machine and finds files which match the template you specify. (33KB)<END><br>36,noform.zip<br>This sample shows how to make an application that doesn't have the doc/view architecture but still offers a form in the client area of the application's main window. (33KB)<END><br>37,odcombo.zip<br>ODCOMBO.ZIP is a VC++ 6.0 dialog-based project that contians an onwer-drawn combo box. (23KB)<END><br>38,picknew.zip<br>It demonstrates calling CDocTemplate::OpenDocumentFile(). (49KB)<END><br>39,primecon.zip<br>PrimeCon is a VC++ 6.0 sample which uses MFC in a console application.(60KB)<END><br>40,q1.zip<br>Q1 is a VC++ 6.0 project that creates two threads. (79KB)<END><br>41,scrl.zip<br>This dialog-based application shows how to use the CListCtrl::Scroll() member. (14KB)<END><br>42,spinrange.zip<br>SpinRange is a VC++ 6.0 project that shows how to subclass a CSpinButtonControl to dramatically extend the range of the control. (24KB)<END><br>43,splits.zip<br>This VC++ 5.0 project shows how to manage views within a splitter window. (36KB)<END><br>44,stealth.zip<br>This SDI application shows how to create an application that doesn't show up in the task bar in Windows 95 or Windows NT 4.0. (29KB)<END><br>45,tenhook.zip<br>Because the Windows dialog manager eats all keystrokes, you'll need to install a Windows keyboard hook if you want to get keyboard input to your dialog without other controls getting in the way. (19KB)<END><br>46,treestore.zip<br>Tree views are capable of storing hierarchical data, which isn't intuitively serialized. (41KB)<END><br>47,writeres.zip<br>This console application shows how to bake resources into console applications. (566KB)<END><br>48,xctrl.zip<br>The XCTRL sample is an ATL "full control" ATL Control. (100KB)<END><br>49,Button_Tute.zip<br>How to get a button control wired-in and working(34KB)<END><br>50,BetterBmpButton_src.zip<br>An improvement on the CBitmapButton class.(22KB)<END><br>51,hoverbutton.zip<br>A simple drop-in class that provides a 'hot' look button using the _TrackMouseEvent function(17KB)<END><br>52,CLedButton_src.zip<br>A button that looks like a LED.(24KB)<END><br>53,EllipticalButtons.zip<br>A class that turns rectangular buttons into elliptic buttons.(29KB)<END><br>54,RoundButtons.zip<br>A class that turns rectangular buttons into round buttons.(17KB)<END><br>55,AniButton.zip<br>A class that show AVIs inside a button.(49KB)<END><br>56,CButtonST26.zip<br>A fully featured owner-draw button class - it's got the lot!(225KB)<END><br>57,coolbtn.zip<br>This article shows the use of a Push button with a drop down menu, similar to the one found in the Office 2000 suite.(31KB)<END><br>58,CustomButtons.zip<br>A class to make working with radio buttons easier, and another for custom drawing buttons(45KB)<END><br>59,CWBButton.zip<br>CWBButton is a resizable bitmap button like GTK+ or Window Blinds.(44KB)<END><br>60,ComboDropWidth.zip<br>A simple tutorial explaining how to set the width of a combo dropdown list so that all items are fully visible(18KB)<END><br>61,ComboBox_Tut_demo.zip<br>An entry level tutorial on using the CComboBox control(65KB)<END><br>62,ListBox_Tut_src.zip<br>An entry level tutorial on using the CListBox control(62KB)<END><br>63,BitmapPickerCombo.zip<br>A combo box that can be used to display bitmaps(26KB)<END><br>64,mccombobox.zip<br>A multicolumn, customizable, editable combobox(27KB)<END><br>65,disableditemscombobox_src.zip<br>combobox with disabled items(3KB)<END><br>66,checkcombo.zip<br>A combo box with check boxes(21KB)<END><br>67,ColourPickerCB.zip<br>A combobox derived class that provides a simple color picker(36KB)<END><br>68,ComboBoxInit_src.zip<br>Learn how to programmatically initialize a combo box.(3KB)<END><br>69,IconComboBox_src.zip<br>2 Freeware MFC icon selection combo box classes(19KB)<END><br>70,ComboCompletion_demo.zip<br>A combobox that autocompletes as you type(17KB)<END><br>71,IDComboDemo.zip<br>An extremely simple but useful CComboBox entension(12KB)<END><br>72,MRUCombo.zip<br>A combobox that encapsulates the functionality of CRecentFileList(29KB)<END><br>73,combobox_flatcombo.zip<br>A drop-in replacement combobox that gives your apps the flat Office-style look(53KB)<END><br>74,readonlycombo_src.zip<br>Show a disabled dropdown style combobox like a read only edit box.(2KB)<END><br>75,VBLikeCombo.zip<br>Creates a combo box similar to those in Visual Basic.(27KB)<END><br>76,ComboTree.zip<br>ComboBox with a tree control drop down(36KB)<END><br>77,multichecklistbox.zip<br>Extends the CCheckListBox class to have multiple check box columns(19KB)<END><br>78,disableditemslistbox_src.zip<br>Listbox with disabled items.(2KB)<END><br>79,ImageLB.zip<br>A list box for viewing images(25KB)<END><br>80,LVCustomDraw.zip<br>Using the custom-draw features in version 4.70 of the common controls to customise the look and feel of list controls(28KB)<END><br>81,ListCtrlDemo.zip<br>Everything you need to know about using the standard list control in your applications(68KB)<END><br>82,filedroplistctrl.zip<br>This article explains how to support file drag and drop in your CWnd-derived object(40KB)<END><br>83,DrivePickerList.zip<br>A control that shows drive names and icons like Explorer(23KB)<END><br>84,ListEditor.zip<br>This article shows you how you can navigate through a multi-column, editable list view(42KB)<END><br>85,LogControl_src.zip<br>Learn how to use printf-like functionality to debug your GUI applications.(46KB)<END><br>86,PropertyListCtrl.zip<br>An object properties list control than can change based on the objects state.(64KB)<END><br>87,supergrid.zip<br>A combination list control and tree control with checkbox capability(87KB)<END><br>88,Listview_callback.zip<br>Shows how to use text callbacks in list controls(16KB)<END><br>89,HeaderCtrlEx.zip<br>How to make the CListCtrl's header Multiline(29KB)<END><br>90,listPrint_demo.zip<br>Printing the contents of a CListCtrl or CListView with multiple pages(56KB)<END><br>91,TreeListCtrlGerolf.zip<br>A custom-drawn tree-list hybrid, with explanations on how the control was developed.(39KB)<END><br>92,PrtTView_demo.zip<br>Code to add printing capabilities to a Tree View(32KB)<END><br>93,treelist.zip<br>A tree control / list control hybrid(81KB)<END><br>94,FileTree_src.zip<br>Implements a tree control similar to the left hand side of Windows Explorer.(46KB)<END><br>95,TreeOpt_src.zip<br>A freeware MFC class to provide a tree options control.(32KB)<END><br>96,ShTree.zip<br>A very simple manager for shared folders using tree control drag & drop (42KB)<END><br>97,NetworkTreeCtrl.zip<br>A CWaitingTreeCtrl-derived class to display network resources(40KB)<END><br>98,ProgressHourglassFX.zip<br>Two animation provider classes to add animation effects to any CWaitingTreeCtrl-derived class(33KB)<END><br>99,ShellTreeCtrl.zip<br>A CWaitingTreeCtrl-derived class to display Shell's resources(39KB)<END><br>100,WaitingTreeCtrl_src.zip<br>A CTreeCtrl derived class that populates the branches of a tree only when necessary, with optional visual effects.(5KB)<END><br>101,PathPicker.zip<br>An article on Browsing my computer and the network using a TreeCtrl(82KB)<END><br>102,Tree2Excel.zip<br>This article is a light sample showing how to iterate and export a tree control content to an Excel file.(44KB)<END><br>103,lbtab.zip<br>A better looking tab control(89KB)<END><br>104,CXTabControl_demo.zip<br>An easier tab control(32KB)<END><br>105,ResizableProperties.zip<br>Two CPropertySheet/CPropertyPage derived classes to implement resizable property sheets or wizard dialogs with MFC(96KB)<END><br>106,saprefs.zip<br>A base class for a prefereneces dialog, similar to that used in Netscape(39KB)<END><br>107,wizardpropertysheet_src.zip<br>A simply class to turn CPropertySheet into wizard mode without needing to alert the property pages within(2KB)<END><br>108,AutoRichEditCtrl.zip<br>CAutoRichEditCtrl - automate rich edit formatting and RTF handling(49KB)<END><br>109,AutomaticSplitter.zip<br>A tutorial that shows how to automatically split a view, and also how to indicate which view has the focus(31KB)<END><br>110,usefulsplitter.zip<br>An extension to MFCs CSplitterWnd that provides splitter locking and dynamic view replacement(25KB)<END><br>111,rulers_src.zip<br>Using fixed panes to add rulers to your view(5KB)<END><br>112,StaticCtrl_Tut_demo.zip<br>An entry level tutorial on using the CStatic control(64KB)<END><br>113,rotated_bevel.zip<br>A bevelline control that displays vertical and horizontal text(83KB)<END><br>114,Ticker.zip<br>A class that provides a news/stock ticker for your MFC applications(47KB)<END><br>115,StaticCounter.zip<br>A control to display time, floating point numbers or integers using an LED digital-style display(41KB)<END><br>116,CStaticTime.zip<br>A control to display times and numbers using an LED digital-style display(52KB)<END><br>117,alexf_histogram.zip<br>A simple histogram control for displaying data(23KB)<END><br>118,static_fader.zip<br>A CStatic class that gently fades text into view(99KB)<END><br>119,CLabel_demo.zip<br>A fully stocked owner drawn CStatic class(52KB)<END><br>120,DigiString.zip<br>A control to display text or numbers with a 14 or 7 segment display(176KB)<END><br>121,cstatic_filespec.zip<br>Lightweight class for displaying long filespecs that may need to be truncated(16KB)<END><br>122,tip_static.zip<br>A tip-of-the-day control that uses a cool sliding effect to show each tip(133KB)<END><br>123,UsingCtrlsInDialogs_Tut_demo.zip<br>An entry level tutorial on using one of the Windows Common Controls in a dialog(42KB)<END><br>124,CmdUIDemo.zip<br>A C++/MFC sample how to implement UI notifications for user-defined controls(15KB)<END><br>125,SubclassDemo.zip<br>An introduction to subclassing the Windows common controls using MFC(19KB)<END><br>126,CustomControl.zip<br>An introduction to creating custom controls using MFC(22KB)<END><br>127,graph2d.zip<br>A comprehensive set of classes for displaying 2 dimensional data(386KB)<END><br>128,3dMeter_demo.zip<br>An Analog Meter Control for displaying real-time data(42KB)<END><br>129,analog_meter.zip<br>A control that displays a numerical value as an analog meter(45KB)<END><br>130,oscope.zip<br>A control that graphically displays numerical information(31KB)<END><br>131,swing_demo.zip<br>A set of MFC classes the duplicate the Java Swing look and feel(76KB)<END><br>132,ReportCtrl.zip<br>An Outlook 98/2000 Style SuperGrid Report Control that tries to overcome some of the weaknesses of other implementations.(179KB)<END><br>133,controls_pager.zip<br>This article presents a wrapper class for the pager control(28KB)<END><br>134,RulerCtrl.zip<br>A simple ruler control to allow users to set margins or indents(21KB)<END><br>135,CSizer.zip<br>A class that provides the ability to move and size controls at run-time (34KB)<END><br>136,controls_avi_demo.zip<br>Demonstrates the use of the windows animation control(145KB)<END><br>137,CMapPin_src.zip<br>A Freeware MFC class to implement Map pins.(286KB)<END><br>138,CFCtrl.zip<br>The simplest way to change color, font or set blinking mode for any standard control(53KB)<END><br>139,CPushPin_src.zip<br>A Freeware MFC PushPin button class.(15KB)<END><br>140,CWndSlider.zip<br>An article on using an Outlook style window slider control.(98KB)<END><br>141,cxwndAnimate_demo.zip<br>An animation control that uses a bitmap imagelist instead of an AVI file(25KB)<END><br>142,hyperlink.zip<br>A simple drop-in hyperlink control(28KB)<END><br>143,ViewObjSnap.zip<br>How to take a snapshot of an OCX without using HWNDs.(38KB)<END><br>144,lbspin.zip<br>A spin button whose arrows automatically disable themselves when they are at their maximum or minimum value.(27KB)<END><br>145,SubclassWnd_demo.zip<br>A plug in class that allows you to intercept and handle messages for any window class(266KB)<END><br>146,resize_at_runtime_demo.zip<br>A method to allow the user to visually resize and position any control at run time(15KB)<END><br>147,RoundSliderCtrl.zip<br>A round slider control to allow users to adjust an angle or similar values(90KB)<END><br>148,EasyFavorite.zip<br>An application demonstrating the windows Thumbnail control(42KB)<END><br>149,TGroupBox.zip<br>A very simple group box replacement to enhance your user interface(3KB)<END><br>150,WndImg.zip<br>An easy-to-use control to display bitmaps (stretch, scale, tile)(128KB)<END><br>151,URLCell_src.zip<br>A new class that adds hyperlink support to the MFC Grid Control(3KB)<END><br>152,gridctrl.zip<br>A fully featured MFC grid control for displaying tabular data. The grid is a custom control derived from CWnd(381KB)<END><br>153,GridTreeCtrl.zip<br>A set of classes derived from CGridCtrl that embed a tree control, button controls, and virtual cells within the grid(221KB)<END><br>154,gridctrl_demo220.zip<br>Explains how to use comboboxes to edit cells in the MFC Grid Control(203KB)<END><br>155,AddHTMLy.zip<br>A quick and simple example of using MSHTML to modify the DOM(36KB)<END><br>156,Process_HTMLFORM.zip<br>A simple method to processing HTML forms From a CHtmlView(60KB)<END><br>157,ColorButton.zip<br>A simple modification to Chris Maunder's "Office 97 style Colour Picker" control(44KB)<END><br>158,ColorSpace_demo.zip<br>A replacement color picker control allowing you full visual control over RGB and HSB selections(288KB)<END><br>159,ColorDlg.zip<br>A simple color chooser dialog that uses slifer controls to allow the user to combine different RGB values(37KB)<END><br>160,choicelistbutton_demo.zip<br>A dropdown menu button with checkbox menu items(25KB)<END><br>161,HotList.zip<br>A control for selecting items from a list, with tool tips and mouse tracking(33KB)<END><br>162,colour_picker.zip<br>A simple drop in color chooser control(54KB)<END><br>163,progresswnd.zip<br>A popup window containing a progress control and cancel button - no resource file needed(34KB)<END><br>164,ProgressCtrlX.zip<br>An enhanced progress control that supports gradient shading, formatted text, 'snake' and reverse modes, and vertical modes(80KB)<END><br>165,GradientProgressCtrl.zip<br>Subclasses the standard CProgressCtrl to allow for gradient fills. Supports vertical progress controls as well.(52KB)<END><br>166,piectrl.zip<br>A progress control with a difference(149KB)<END><br>167,text_progressctrl_demo.zip<br>A smooth progress control with text(15KB)<END><br>168,ProgressBar.zip<br>An easy way to add a progress control to a status bar(33KB)<END><br>169,ProgressTimeToComplete.zip<br>A progress control that tells the user how long an operation has left to complete(26KB)<END><br>170,IProgressDialog_demo.zip<br>A wrapper class for the progress dialog provided by IE 5.(20KB)<END><br>171,rotary.zip<br>A rotary knob similar to that used in the Windows 2000 CD Player(67KB)<END><br>172,SizeDemo.zip<br>An MS-Word like drop down window for creating tables(37KB)<END><br>173,ToolTipEx.zip<br>A drop-in multiline extendable tooltip control(1052KB)<END><br>174,Multiline_Titletips_demo.zip<br>A class that allows you to display data for a control that is otherwise not large enough to display the full text(23KB)<END><br>175,CHtmlView_Search_demo.zip<br>Could be used to create a Visual C++ like search combo for CHtmlViews...<br>Update: Now you can highlight all matching words!(36KB)<END><br>176,AssociationGrid.zip<br>Grid control with vertical column headers.(85KB)<END><br>

Visual C++ 编程资源大全（英文源码 表单）

1,01.zipMFC Extension LibraryMFC扩展界面库, 使用Visual C++ 6.0(15KB)2,02.zipVisual Studio style UIVisual Studio风格的界面效果(15KB)3,03.zipInternet Explorer 4 style UIIE4.0风格的界面效果(29KB)4,04.zipOutlook Style UIOutlook风格的界面效果(16KB)5,05.zipDynamic child window repositioning动态改变对话框的大小, 对话框中的控件相应改变(15KB)6,06.zipEnhanced list control增强的List控件(43KB)7,07.zipCDialog using animated control在CDialog中使用动画(12KB)8,08.zipOpen Dialog with Bitmap Preview位图预览的打开文件对话框(43KB)9,09.zipStandard file open dialog with preview标准位图预览的打开文件对话框(24KB)10,10.zipBitmap Dialog Class位图对话框类(13KB)11,11.zipClass for Browsing shell namespace with your own dialog显示目录的树型结构, 可用于目录的选择(31KB)12,12.zipUsing ON_UPDATE_COMMAND_UI with dialogs在对话框中使用ON_UPDATE_COMMAND_UI(13KB)13,13.zipUsing ON_UPDATE_COMMAND_UI with dialogs (2)使用ON_UPDATE_COMMAND_UI(11KB)14,14.zipModeless child dialog in a Main Dialog with corrected tab order非模式对话框在主对话框中的TAB顺序(21KB)15,15.zipCostumizing CFileDialog定制的CFileDialog(22KB)16,16.zipAttaching Elements to Borders一个可以在对话框中改变按纽位置、大小的容器(26KB)17,17.zipScrolling credits dialog滚动信用对话框(12KB)18,18.zipColor Dialog with Persistent Custom Colors对话框继承了上一次的颜色风格(12KB)19,19.zipA Base Dialog Class for Modal/Modeless Dialog with Custom Background Color自定义背景的对话框(13KB)20,20.zipParse IP addresses解析IP地址(12KB)21,21.zipParse phone fields解析电话区域(11KB)22,22.zipChanging the default file open/save dialogs in an MFC doc/view application初始化对话框和支持动态数据交换(DDX)(15KB)23,23.zipDialog with Splash Screen Example Code...Splash对话框的例子(18KB)24,24.zipClass to select directory选择目录的类(13KB)25,25.zipClass to select directory (Enhancements)增强的选择目录的类(12KB)26,26.zipDirectory Picker Dialog目录采集对话框(42KB)27,27.zipSimple way to change dialog's background and text colors改变对话框背景颜色和文字颜色的简单途径(11KB)28,28.zipA Simple Dialog Layout Manager一个简单的对话框设计管理器(19KB)29,29.zipUsing Buttons on a Dialog Bar with CCmdUI通过CCmdUI在对话框条中使用按纽(19KB)30,30.zipDisplay help for dialog controls on the status bar在状态条中显示对话框中控件的帮助信息(12KB)31,31.zipDragging a dialog by clicking anywhere on it点击任何地方拖动对话框(11KB)32,32.zipSplash screen with text on it that uses its own thread通过自己的线程在Splash对话框中显示文字(136KB)33,33.zipCreating an expanding dialog创建一个可扩展的对话框(15KB)34,34.zipExpanding/Contracting Dialog Box扩展/缩小对话框(24KB)35,35.zipCFileDialog class that only displays folders让CFileDialog只显示目录(很有用)(2KB)36,36.zipFolder Browsing Dialog目录浏览对话框(3KB)37,37.zipFont dialog with custom text preview & color字体对话框中增加字体和颜色的预览(12KB)38,38.zipEmbedding an HTML Help window into a dialog嵌入一个超文本(HTML)的帮助窗口到对话框中(22KB)39,39.zipDialog which can be used as MDI child window使用MDI子窗口的对话框(13KB)40,40.zipConvert modal dialogs to modeless将模式对话框转换成非模式对话框(12KB)41,41.zipNetscape 4.x Preferences Dialog类似Netscape 4.x参数选择的对话框(7KB)42,42.zipHandling OnUpdate() processing for menu itemsOnUpdate()处理菜单项(5KB)43,43.zipOptions Tree Dialog树状的配置对话框(25KB)44,44.zipCustomizing the font dialog定制的字体对话框(4KB)45,45.zipSizable dialogs at its easiest轻松改变对话框的大小(5KB)46,46.zipA Snap Size Dialog Class一个捕获对话框大小的类(5KB)47,47.zipCSplitterWnd in a Dialog based Application一个基于对话框的应用(6KB)48,48.zipSplash Screen with 256 color support支持256色的Splash对话框(7KB)49,49.zipSubselection Dialog 子项选择的对话框(5KB)50,50.zipSwitching dialog boxes in a dialog-based application在基于对话框应用中切换对话框(5KB)51,51.zipBetter Tip of the Day dialog典型的Did you konw...对话框(26KB)52,52.zipToolbars and Statusbars on Dialogs在对话框中增加工具条和状态条(7KB)53,53.zipTooltips in modal dialog boxes在模式对话框中实现工具提示(6KB)54,54.zipTooltips for dialog controls实现对话框控件的工具提示(4KB)55,55.zipTransparent Dialog透明的对话框(5KB)56,56.zipViewing Dialog Template Resources at Runtime运行时看对话框模板资源(5KB)57,57.zipAlternative Wizard Dialog一个Wizard对话框, 在安装程序中也有用(5KB)58,58.zipAVLTree实现AVL(Addison-Velski and Landis)树结构(5KB)59,59.zipTemplate class to manipulate bits of undefined type一个操作未知类型的模板库(5KB)60,60.zipBlowfish EncryptionBlowfish加密算法加密(4KB)61,61.zipBlowfish encryption classBlowfish加密类(5KB)62,62.zipExpression Evaluation数学公式识别类(5KB)63,63.zipA Y2.038K-Safe Replacement for CTimeCTime的替换类(5KB)64,64.zipIterating through List Containers关于List容器的话题(5KB)65,65.zipLexical Analyser词汇分析(8KB)66,66.zipLocales and Facets in Visual C++VC++的许多细节话题(10KB)67,67.zipA Generalized Parsing Class for MFC一个普通的MFC解析类(5KB)68,69.zipCreating Singleton Objects using Visual C++使用VC++创建一个单独的对象(9KB)69,69.zipSmart Pointers and other Pointer classes指针类(5KB)70,70.zipSortable CObArray class对CObArray类排序(5KB)71,71.zipSortable CObList class对CObList类排序(6KB)72,72.zipExtension to the STL find_if and for_each扩充STL库(5KB)73,73.zipChange from child window to popup window (and back) 将一个子窗口改成弹出式窗口(5KB)74,74.zipRestoring Window Position With Multiple Monitors在多层监视器中恢复窗口的位置(5KB)75,75.zipTransparent Window透明的窗口(6KB)76,CenterMDIWnd_demo.zipCenter CMDIChildWnds in the client area of the main frame window(151KB)77,TabbedMDI.zipA variation on the MDI that indicates the open child windows in a tab control. (400KB)78,AdvancedPrev.zipA simple class that helps provide faster Print Preview within MFC Doc/View applications(38KB)79,mditab.zipA dockable bar containing a tabbed list of open windows(91KB)80,CloseUnusedDocs_src.zipClosing unused MDI documents with 1 line of code(2KB)81,graphfx_demo.zipA Doc/View framework for displaying graphical data(192KB)82,WindowsManager.zipImplementing "Windows..." dialog(39KB)83,MultiMRUList_src.zipThis article describes how to maintain the separate MRU list for each document type that is needed in some applications(26KB)84,MultiTop.zipAllows an application to have multiple top-level windows. (22KB)85,PersistFrames.zipA collection of classes that allows MFC SDI and MDI applications to remember the positions and sizes of their main frame and child frame windows. (71KB)86,step0.zipA series of articles that resulted from experimenting with adding Drag and Drop features to my existing application. (16KB)87,undo.zipEasily add Undo/Redo to your CDocument/CView Based Applciation(2KB)88,PropertyView.zipA "Property Sheet"-like view class for MFC (108KB)89,DocViewWTL.zipA library that provides the easiest way to get loosely coupled components. (156KB)90,Dialog2.zipA step by step tutorial showing how to create your first windows program using MFC(112KB)91,MyMDIApp.zipA brief step-by-step tutorial that demonstrates creating an SDI and MDI based applications using the MFC Doc/View architecture.(54KB)92,sditutorial_demo.zipA brief step-by-step tutorial that demonstrates creating an SDI based application that does not use the MFC Doc/View architecture.(15KB)93,QuickWin.zipRedirect stdin, stdout and stderr into a window(125KB)94,GradientTitleBar.zipThis article shows you how to give your Win95/NT4 modeless dialogs a Win98/W2K like gradient title bar.(42KB)95,MsgBoxDemo.zipThe system Message Box that is closed atuomatically after some time(21KB)96,step1.zipSimple step by step article explaining how to create a modeless dialog box as child window.(21KB)97,step2.zipSimple step by step article explaining how to create a modeless dialog box as sibling of the app's main window.(22KB)98,ResizableDialog.zipA CDialog derived class to implement resizable dialogs with MFC (98KB)99,CenterAnywhere_demo.zipThis is a good replacement for CWnd::CenterWindow() that works. (43KB)100,CardDialog.zipA auto-sizing dialog used to store and display smaller child dialogs(22KB)101,scrolling_credits.zipA Scrolling Credits Dialog(209KB)102,snapdialog.zipDialog class that implement a snap-to-screen-border feature like Winamp(16KB)103,messagebox.zipA class which encapsulates MessageBoxIndirect.(18KB)104,rfldlg.zipThis article demonstrates how to add a recent file list to a dialog based application(25KB)105,dialogspl_demo.zipSplash screens are not only for Doc/View based applications(142KB)106,CClockCtrl_src.zipA Freeware MFC class to display an analog clock.(17KB)107,ChildDlg.zipChild Dialog (Sub Forms)(29KB)108,CIconDialog_src.zipA Freeware MFC dialog class to select an icon.(12KB)109,CPushPinFrame_src.zipA Freeware MFC PushPin property page dialog class.(19KB)110,showhide.zipA neat way to show/hide groups of related controls(13KB)111,ResizeCtrl.zipA resize control to implement resizable dialogs with MFC(38KB)112,DDXFile_src.zipA Freeware DDX routine for selecting a filename.(29KB)113,DynWindow_src.zipDescribes a method to implement resizable child windows.(108KB)114,DynamicDialog.zipCreate dialogs dynamically, and easily, without the need for a dialog resource script.(40KB)115,DlgExpand.zipThis article shows gives you the ability to make your dialogs expand or contract, depending on how much information the user wishes to view(15KB)116,TipDemo.zipImproved Tip-of-the-Day Dialog(149KB)117,layoutmgr.zipA framework to provide automatic layout control for dialogs and forms(101KB)118,MainWndPlacement.zipSave/restore the main window size at application exit/startup with a single function call in MDI, SDI and dialog based applications.(29KB)119,sizer_demo.zipAn article on extendable layout management classes(27KB)120,Splasher_src.zipAn improved splash screen component for MFC.(62KB)121,StackDialog.zipCreating a stacked dialog such as Netscape's 'Preferences' dialog(22KB)122,bitmappreviewdialog_src.zipThis article describes a completely object oriented standard file open dialog with preview.(12KB)123,subselect_dialog.zipSubselection Dialog(123KB)124,TabDialog.zipA docking dialog that auto-expands when the mouse passes over it(35KB)125,TcxMsgBox.zipTCX Message Box (derived from CWnd)(35KB)126,ToolTips.zipA demonstration of how to show tooltips in modal dialog bozes(23KB)127,UpdateModalDlg_demo.zipHow to update a modal dialog contents using a callback function(17KB)128,WinampWnd_demo.zipAn article discussing a Plugin for Nullsoft Winamp which looks and behaves like the Winamp UI.(43KB)129,Skins.zipA mini library to build Bitmap based skinnable apps.(174KB)130,FaderWnd_demo.zipAn MFC class to fade any window with only one line of code.(28KB)131,Win2kFileDlg.zipEver wanted to use the new Office 2000 file dialogs on Win 95/98/NT/Me, including the file previewing? Well now you can.(76KB)132,win2000fd.zipHow to show the new Common File Dialog in MFC Apps in Windows 2000(36KB)133,Wizard2000.zipCreate Windows 2000 style Wizards with white backgrounds(109KB)134,FileExportDialog.zipAdding filters to the Open File dialog(24KB)135,customize_dialog.zipCustomizing the Windows Common File Open Dialog(15KB)136,SelectFolder.zipThe windows 'Select Folder' dialog with some extra functionality(41KB)137,animate_dlg.zipAnimated Icon on Titlebar of a Dialog based Application(34KB)138,BmpDlg.zipBitmap Dialog Class(52KB)139,namespace.zipClass for Browsing shell namespace with your own dialog(78KB)140,OnUpdate_demo.zipHandling OnUpdate() processing for menu items(10KB)141,DialogUpdates.zipUsing ON_UPDATE_COMMAND_UI with all controls in a Dialog(18KB)142,override.zipCustomizing the font dialog(4KB)143,cmdlg.zipCostumizing CFileDialog(31KB)144,custom_open.zipCustom Open File or Save as Dialog(25KB)145,ColorFormView.zipCFormView Class with Custom Background Color(33KB)146,Banner.zipAnimated Background Banner(88KB)147,MDIClient.zipA Custom MDI Client Class(42KB)148,html_help_view.zipHTML Help In CView Window(5KB)149,MDIPreview_demo.zipPrint Preview in MDI Frame(20KB)150,zoom_scale.zipAdd Zoom and Scale Capabilities to CScrollView(338KB)151,autopan.zipAuto-Panning Windows(44KB)152,autopan2.zipMicrosoft Internet Explorer like Intellimouse AutoScroll(42KB)153,intellipan.zipIntellimouse panning (improved Auto-Panning Windows)(5KB)154,intellipan2.zipIntellimouse panning 2 (A universal Auto-Panning solution)(12KB)155,bigscroll.zipBreaking the CScrollView 32768 size limitation with CBigScrollView(90KB)156,variable_splitter.zipVariable splitter views(58KB)157,TabbedViews_src.zipTabbed Views(78KB)158,animate_icon_src.zipAnimated Icon on Titlebar of a window(48KB)159,msdi1632.zipMultiSingle (MSDI) Document interface(77KB)160,msdidao.zipMultiSingle (MSDI) Document interface with DAO doc(508KB)161,ScreenSwitch_demo.zipMultiple Views Using SDI(26KB)162,multiview.zipMultiple views for a single document (MDI) 3(86KB)163,WinMenu_demo.zipHome made MDI windows list in Window menu(21KB)164,SdiMulti.zipSDI Interface with Multi-Views and Multi-Splitters(88KB)165,DocViewInDll_demo.zipSeparating the views of an MDI application into different DLLs(60KB)166,MultiFrame_demo.zipMultiple frame windows in SDI application(76KB)167,mrcext.zipResizable Docking Window(862KB)168,sizing.zipSizing TabControlBar(46KB)169,devstudio.zipAnother DevStudio-alike DialogBar(43KB)170,docking.zipResizable Docking Window 2(98KB)171,simple_splitter.zipGeneral Purpose Splitter Class(43KB)172,cxysplitter.zipA pair of splitter classes used in dialogbox(21KB)173,dynamic_splitter.zipSplitter Window - "True" dynamic splitter window(52KB)174,outlook_style.zipOutook Style Splitter Bar(59KB)175,minsplit.zipMinimum size splitter(36KB)176,scrbsplt.zipRemoving and reapplying splitter windows on-the-fly in Scribble with a custom splitter window class(157KB)177,switchviews_in_splitter.zipSwitching views in splitter panes (SDI)(44KB)178,rulers_src.zipImplementing Rulers inside of Splitter Panes(5KB)179,dynamic1.zipDifferent Views In Dynamic Splitter(202KB)180,dialogstartupanimation.zipThis sample shows you how to create dialog startup animation like that of Window 98'menu(18KB)181,yqeditgridcontrol.zipa grid control that enable keyboard input. That is to say, you can write data in it. (31KB)182,switchmdiviews.zipThis sample shows you how to switch from one view to the other in a MDI splitter window application(31KB) 183,yqmdireplaceview.zipThis sample shows you how to replace different views in a MDI splitter window application(36KB) 184,switchview.zipThis sample shows you how to switch from one MDI window to another by using the "Ctrl Tab" key.(29KB) 185,filterreturnkey.zipThis sample shows you how to trap, filter the ENTER and ESCAPE key of a dialog box (17KB)186,filterkey.zipThis sample shows you how to filter a certain key and mask that key(18KB)187,editenter.zipThis sample shows you how to use RETURN key to switch among edit controls of a dialog box(18KB)188,dialoghook.zipThis sample shows you how to set keyboard hook function of a dialog box to trap RETURN ,ESCAPE key.(17KB) 189,contexthelp.zipThis sample shows you how to create context sensitive help of a control of a dialog box(26KB) 190,traparrokey.zipThis sample describes how to trap arrow keys in an control of a dialog box (18KB)191,yqadvancedbtn.zipOwner draw hot button support both bitmap and icon, with flat, gripper property. (108KB)192,drawlistbo.zipOwner draw CTabCtrl with flat gripper property (40KB)193,startupanimation.zipCreate Window startup animation, including several kind of animation style, very interesting(23KB) 194,flatlistbox.zipusing a unique way to implement flat attribute( other than those published on the codegurn), as well as hot ,gripper attribute.(21KB) 195,yqhoteditctrl.zipCreate edit control with Hot , flat, gripper. separator attributes (21KB)196,3dmdishadow.zipCreate 3D shadow of a MDI frame windows(32KB) 197,3dsdishadow.zipCreate 3D shadow of a SDI frame windows(29KB)198,getfile.zipA DDX routine for MFC to retrieve filenames(29KB)199,splasher.zipAn improved splash screen component for MFC(62KB)200,pushpin.zipA pushpin button MFC class(12KB)201,getfolder.zipA DDX routine for MFC to retrieve folders(30KB)202,ntray.zipAn MFC class to manipulate tray icons(17KB)203,hlinkctrl.zipAn MFC class to support hyperlinks on windows and dialogs(16KB)204,icondialog.zipAn icon selection dialog class for MFC(12KB)205,pushpinframe.zipAn MFC class to provide property dialogs ala Developer Studio(16KB)206,mappin.zipAn MFC class to implement map pins(286KB)207,iconcombobox.zip2 MFC classes to implement icon selection combo boxes(19KB)208,menuex_demo.zipImplementing an Ownerdrawn menu (35KB)209,bcmenu261.zipCool Owner Drawn Menus with BitmapsVersion 2.61(70KB)210,dynmenu.zipSome handy functions for adding and deleting submenus and menuitems in runtime (16KB)211,gradientmenu.zipCreate Popup menus in MFC with a gradient and text on the left side (89KB)212,menuicon_demo.zipGive your apps a unique look by adding a logo to your menu(48KB)213,bcgbappwizard.zipBCGControlBar library version 4.6(2121KB)214,mpcstatusbar.zipAn enhanced CStatusBar to easily and dynamically add/remove controls on a status bar (48KB)215,textonlystatusbar.zipAn easy to use and implement Text Only Status Bar with Tool tip text extracted from the status bar panes. (39KB)216,progressbar.zipShowing progress bar in a status bar pane(33KB)217,sizecbar_src.zipDevStudio-like docking window (64KB)218,sizing_tabct1_demo.zipCreates a dockable and resizable control bar. (46KB)219,dockview.zipA fairly simple way to incoporate views into sizing control bars(69KB)220,spin_slide_toolbar.zipHow to create toolbars with spinners and/or sliders(48KB)221,tearoffrebars_prj.zipThis article Implements the functionality similar to the Office 2000 toolbars(26KB)222,flatbar.zipA flat toolbar implementation that does not require the updated common controls library from Internet Explorer. (197KB)223,toolbar_droparrow_demo.zipDemonstrates how to use the new toolbar styles to add dropdown arrows to toolbar buttons (28KB)224,dynamictb.zipA simple tutorial that shows how to dynamically replace toolbars at runtime (35KB)225,toolbar_docking_demo.zipDemonstrates how to dock toolbars side-by-side (29KB)226,tapetoolbar.zipA spectacular variation on toolbars (35KB)227,chevions.zipAn introduction to using the cool new toolbar chevrons (18KB)228,toolgroupmanager.zipA reusable template class for managing multiple toolbars, only one of which is displayed at a time(30KB)229,toolbar_hotbuttons_demo.zipDemonstrates how to add rollover buttons to your toolbar(30KB)230,toolbar.zipWTL Tool Bar Drop-Down Extension(64KB)231,win95asm.zipIntroduction to Menus(113KB)232,outbar.zipCGfxOutBarCtrl, an Outlook98 bar-like control(163KB)233,tabstatus.zipAdvanced UI - MDI list in the status bar (and a custom Window List dialog)(62KB)234,gfxlist.zipList Control - Enhanced list control(1544KB)235,maillook.zipInternet Mail Look(42KB)236,cdxcdynamic.zipDynamic child window repositioning for dialogs, property sheets, form views and any other CWnd derived classes. (227KB)237,voicecmd.zipVoice Command Enabling Your Software (27KB)238,cj60lib.zipMFC Extension Library - CJ60 Version 6.07(1100KB)239,infobar.zipInformation Bar (62KB)240,switcher.zipA Switcher Control (like the Windows Task Bar) (40KB)

python3.6.5参考手册 chm

Python参考手册，官方正式版参考手册，chm版。以下摘取部分内容:Navigation index modules | next | Python » 3.6.5 Documentation » Python Documentation contents What’s New in Python What’s New In Python 3.6 Summary – Release highlights New Features PEP 498: Formatted string literals PEP 526: Syntax for variable annotations PEP 515: Underscores in Numeric Literals PEP 525: Asynchronous Generators PEP 530: Asynchronous Comprehensions PEP 487: Simpler customization of class creation PEP 487: Descriptor Protocol Enhancements PEP 519: Adding a file system path protocol PEP 495: Local Time Disambiguation PEP 529: Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8 PEP 528: Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8 PEP 520: Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order PEP 468: Preserving Keyword Argument Order New dict implementation PEP 523: Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython PYTHONMALLOC environment variable DTrace and SystemTap probing support Other Language Changes New Modules secrets Improved Modules array ast asyncio binascii cmath collections concurrent.futures contextlib datetime decimal distutils email encodings enum faulthandler fileinput hashlib http.client idlelib and IDLE importlib inspect json logging math multiprocessing os pathlib pdb pickle pickletools pydoc random re readline rlcompleter shlex site sqlite3 socket socketserver ssl statistics struct subprocess sys telnetlib time timeit tkinter traceback tracemalloc typing unicodedata unittest.mock urllib.request urllib.robotparser venv warnings winreg winsound xmlrpc.client zipfile zlib Optimizations Build and C API Changes Other Improvements Deprecated New Keywords Deprecated Python behavior Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods asynchat asyncore dbm distutils grp importlib os re ssl tkinter venv Deprecated functions and types of the C API Deprecated Build Options Removed API and Feature Removals Porting to Python 3.6 Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior Changes in the Python API Changes in the C API CPython bytecode changes Notable changes in Python 3.6.2 New make regen-all build target Removal of make touch build target Notable changes in Python 3.6.5 What’s New In Python 3.5 Summary – Release highlights New Features PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray PEP 484 - Type Hints PEP 471 - os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator PEP 475: Retry system calls failing with EINTR PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside generators PEP 485: A function for testing approximate equality PEP 486: Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments PEP 488: Elimination of PYO files PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization Other Language Changes New Modules typing zipapp Improved Modules argparse asyncio bz2 cgi cmath code collections collections.abc compileall concurrent.futures configparser contextlib csv curses dbm difflib distutils doctest email enum faulthandler functools glob gzip heapq http http.client idlelib and IDLE imaplib imghdr importlib inspect io ipaddress json linecache locale logging lzma math multiprocessing operator os pathlib pickle poplib re readline selectors shutil signal smtpd smtplib sndhdr socket ssl Memory BIO Support Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support Other Changes sqlite3 subprocess sys sysconfig tarfile threading time timeit tkinter traceback types unicodedata unittest unittest.mock urllib wsgiref xmlrpc xml.sax zipfile Other module-level changes Optimizations Build and C API Changes Deprecated New Keywords Deprecated Python Behavior Unsupported Operating Systems Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods Removed API and Feature Removals Porting to Python 3.5 Changes in Python behavior Changes in the Python API Changes in the C API What’s New In Python 3.4 Summary – Release Highlights New Features PEP 453: Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations Bootstrapping pip By Default Documentation Changes PEP 446: Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable Improvements to Codec Handling PEP 451: A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System Other Language Changes New Modules asyncio ensurepip enum pathlib selectors statistics tracemalloc Improved Modules abc aifc argparse audioop base64 collections colorsys contextlib dbm dis doctest email filecmp functools gc glob hashlib hmac html http idlelib and IDLE importlib inspect ipaddress logging marshal mmap multiprocessing operator os pdb pickle plistlib poplib pprint pty pydoc re resource select shelve shutil smtpd smtplib socket sqlite3 ssl stat struct subprocess sunau sys tarfile textwrap threading traceback types urllib unittest venv wave weakref xml.etree zipfile CPython Implementation Changes PEP 445: Customization of CPython Memory Allocators PEP 442: Safe Object Finalization PEP 456: Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm PEP 436: Argument Clinic Other Build and C API Changes Other Improvements Significant Optimizations Deprecated Deprecations in the Python API Deprecated Features Removed Operating Systems No Longer Supported API and Feature Removals Code Cleanups Porting to Python 3.4 Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior Changes in the Python API Changes in the C API Changed in 3.4.3 PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients What’s New In Python 3.3 Summary – Release highlights PEP 405: Virtual Environments PEP 420: Implicit Namespace Packages PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation Features API changes PEP 393: Flexible String Representation Functionality Performance and resource usage PEP 397: Python Launcher for Windows PEP 3151: Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator PEP 409: Suppressing exception context PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions PEP 412: Key-Sharing Dictionary PEP 362: Function Signature Object PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation SimpleNamespace Using importlib as the Implementation of Import New APIs Visible Changes Other Language Changes A Finer-Grained Import Lock Builtin functions and types New Modules faulthandler ipaddress lzma Improved Modules abc array base64 binascii bz2 codecs collections contextlib crypt curses datetime decimal Features API changes email Policy Framework Provisional Policy with New Header API Other API Changes ftplib functools gc hmac http html imaplib inspect io itertools logging math mmap multiprocessing nntplib os pdb pickle pydoc re sched select shlex shutil signal smtpd smtplib socket socketserver sqlite3 ssl stat struct subprocess sys tarfile tempfile textwrap threading time types unittest urllib webbrowser xml.etree.ElementTree zlib Optimizations Build and C API Changes Deprecated Unsupported Operating Systems Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods Deprecated functions and types of the C API Deprecated features Porting to Python 3.3 Porting Python code Porting C code Building C extensions Command Line Switch Changes What’s New In Python 3.2 PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Parsing Module PEP 391: Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging PEP 3148: The concurrent.futures module PEP 3147: PYC Repository Directories PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1 Other Language Changes New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules email elementtree functools itertools collections threading datetime and time math abc io reprlib logging csv contextlib decimal and fractions ftp popen select gzip and zipfile tarfile hashlib ast os shutil sqlite3 html socket ssl nntp certificates imaplib http.client unittest random poplib asyncore tempfile inspect pydoc dis dbm ctypes site sysconfig pdb configparser urllib.parse mailbox turtledemo Multi-threading Optimizations Unicode Codecs Documentation IDLE Code Repository Build and C API Changes Porting to Python 3.2 What’s New In Python 3.1 PEP 372: Ordered Dictionaries PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator Other Language Changes New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules Optimizations IDLE Build and C API Changes Porting to Python 3.1 What’s New In Python 3.0 Common Stumbling Blocks Print Is A Function Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists Ordering Comparisons Integers Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit Overview Of Syntax Changes New Syntax Changed Syntax Removed Syntax Changes Already Present In Python 2.6 Library Changes PEP 3101: A New Approach To String Formatting Changes To Exceptions Miscellaneous Other Changes Operators And Special Methods Builtins Build and C API Changes Performance Porting To Python 3.0 What’s New in Python 2.7 The Future for Python 2.x Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings Python 3.1 Features PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging PEP 3106: Dictionary Views PEP 3137: The memoryview Object Other Language Changes Interpreter Changes Optimizations New and Improved Modules New module: importlib New module: sysconfig ttk: Themed Widgets for Tk Updated module: unittest Updated module: ElementTree 1.3 Build and C API Changes Capsules Port-Specific Changes: Windows Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X Port-Specific Changes: FreeBSD Other Changes and Fixes Porting to Python 2.7 New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases PEP 434: IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches PEP 466: Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.6 Python 3.0 Changes to the Development Process New Issue Tracker: Roundup New Documentation Format: reStructuredText Using Sphinx PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement Writing Context Managers The contextlib module PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module PEP 370: Per-user site-packages Directory PEP 371: The multiprocessing Package PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting PEP 3105: print As a Function PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes PEP 3112: Byte Literals PEP 3116: New I/O Library PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax PEP 3129: Class Decorators PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers The fractions Module Other Language Changes Optimizations Interpreter Changes New and Improved Modules The ast module The future_builtins module The json module: JavaScript Object Notation The plistlib module: A Property-List Parser ctypes Enhancements Improved SSL Support Deprecations and Removals Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes: Windows Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X Port-Specific Changes: IRIX Porting to Python 2.6 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.5 PEP 308: Conditional Expressions PEP 309: Partial Function Application PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1 PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally PEP 342: New Generator Features PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement Writing Context Managers The contextlib module PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type PEP 357: The ‘__index__’ method Other Language Changes Interactive Interpreter Changes Optimizations New, Improved, and Removed Modules The ctypes package The ElementTree package The hashlib package The sqlite3 package The wsgiref package Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes Porting to Python 2.5 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.4 PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers PEP 289: Generator Expressions PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods PEP 322: Reverse Iteration PEP 324: New subprocess Module PEP 327: Decimal Data Type Why is Decimal needed? The Decimal type The Context type PEP 328: Multi-line Imports PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions Other Language Changes Optimizations New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules cookielib doctest Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes Porting to Python 2.4 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.3 PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype PEP 255: Simple Generators PEP 263: Source Code Encodings PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT PEP 278: Universal Newline Support PEP 279: enumerate() PEP 282: The logging Package PEP 285: A Boolean Type PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils PEP 302: New Import Hooks PEP 305: Comma-separated Files PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements Extended Slices Other Language Changes String Changes Optimizations New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules Date/Time Type The optparse Module Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes Other Changes and Fixes Porting to Python 2.3 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.2 Introduction PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes Old and New Classes Descriptors Multiple Inheritance: The Diamond Rule Attribute Access Related Links PEP 234: Iterators PEP 255: Simple Generators PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator Unicode Changes PEP 227: Nested Scopes New and Improved Modules Interpreter Changes and Fixes Other Changes and Fixes Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.1 Introduction PEP 227: Nested Scopes PEP 236: __future__ Directives PEP 207: Rich Comparisons PEP 230: Warning Framework PEP 229: New Build System PEP 205: Weak References PEP 232: Function Attributes PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook PEP 208: New Coercion Model PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages New and Improved Modules Other Changes and Fixes Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.0 Introduction What About Python 1.6? New Development Process Unicode List Comprehensions Augmented Assignment String Methods Garbage Collection of Cycles Other Core Changes Minor Language Changes Changes to Built-in Functions Porting to 2.0 Extending/Embedding Changes Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install XML Modules SAX2 Support DOM Support Relationship to PyXML Module changes New modules IDLE Improvements Deleted and Deprecated Modules Acknowledgements Changelog Python 3.6.5 final? Tests Build Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1? Security Core and Builtins Library Documentation Tests Build Windows macOS IDLE Tools/Demos C API Python 3.6.4 final? Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library Documentation Tests Build Windows macOS IDLE Tools/Demos C API Python 3.6.3 final? Library Build Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1? Security Core and Builtins Library Documentation Tests Build Windows IDLE Tools/Demos Python 3.6.2 final? Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2? Security Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library Security Library IDLE C API Build Documentation Tools/Demos Tests Windows Python 3.6.1 final? Core and Builtins Build Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Windows C API Documentation Tests Build Python 3.6.0 final? Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2? Core and Builtins Tools/Demos Windows Build Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library C API Documentation Tools/Demos Python 3.6.0 beta 4? Core and Builtins Library Documentation Tests Build Python 3.6.0 beta 3? Core and Builtins Library Windows Build Tests Python 3.6.0 beta 2? Core and Builtins Library Windows C API Build Tests Python 3.6.0 beta 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE C API Tests Build Tools/Demos Windows Python 3.6.0 alpha 4? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Tests Windows Build Python 3.6.0 alpha 3? Core and Builtins Library Security Library Security Library IDLE C API Build Tools/Demos Documentation Tests Python 3.6.0 alpha 2? Core and Builtins Library Security Library Security Library IDLE Documentation Tests Windows Build Windows C API Tools/Demos Python 3.6.0 alpha 1? Core and Builtins Library Security Library Security Library Security Library IDLE Documentation Tests Build Windows Tools/Demos C API Python 3.5.3 final? Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library Security Library Security Library IDLE C API Documentation Tests Tools/Demos Windows Build Python 3.5.2 final? Core and Builtins Tests IDLE Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Security Library Security Library Security Library Security Library Security Library IDLE Documentation Tests Build Windows Tools/Demos Windows Python 3.5.1 final? Core and Builtins Windows Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Documentation Tests Build Windows Tools/Demos Python 3.5.0 final? Build Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4? Library Build Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3? Core and Builtins Library Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2? Core and Builtins Library Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Documentation Tests Python 3.5.0 beta 4? Core and Builtins Library Build Python 3.5.0 beta 3? Core and Builtins Library Tests Documentation Build Python 3.5.0 beta 2? Core and Builtins Library Python 3.5.0 beta 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Tests Documentation Tools/Demos Python 3.5.0 alpha 4? Core and Builtins Library Build Tests Tools/Demos C API Python 3.5.0 alpha 3? Core and Builtins Library Build Tests Tools/Demos Python 3.5.0 alpha 2? Core and Builtins Library Build C API Windows Python 3.5.0 alpha 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Build C API Documentation Tests Tools/Demos Windows The Python Tutorial 1. Whetting Your Appetite 2. Using the Python Interpreter 2.1. Invoking the Interpreter 2.1.1. Argument Passing 2.1.2. Interactive Mode 2.2. The Interpreter and Its Environment 2.2.1. Source Code Encoding 3. An Informal Introduction to Python 3.1. Using Python as a Calculator 3.1.1. Numbers 3.1.2. Strings 3.1.3. Lists 3.2. First Steps Towards Programming 4. More Control Flow Tools 4.1. if Statements 4.2. for Statements 4.3. The range() Function 4.4. break and continue Statements, and else Clauses on Loops 4.5. pass Statements 4.6. Defining Functions 4.7. More on Defining Functions 4.7.1. Default Argument Values 4.7.2. Keyword Arguments 4.7.3. Arbitrary Argument Lists 4.7.4. Unpacking Argument Lists 4.7.5. Lambda Expressions 4.7.6. Documentation Strings 4.7.7. Function Annotations 4.8. Intermezzo: Coding Style 5. Data Structures 5.1. More on Lists 5.1.1. Using Lists as Stacks 5.1.2. Using Lists as Queues 5.1.3. List Comprehensions 5.1.4. Nested List Comprehensions 5.2. The del statement 5.3. Tuples and Sequences 5.4. Sets 5.5. Dictionaries 5.6. Looping Techniques 5.7. More on Conditions 5.8. Comparing Sequences and Other Types 6. Modules 6.1. More on Modules 6.1.1. Executing modules as scripts 6.1.2. The Module Search Path 6.1.3. “Compiled” Python files 6.2. Standard Modules 6.3. The dir() Function 6.4. Packages 6.4.1. Importing * From a Package 6.4.2. Intra-package References 6.4.3. Packages in Multiple Directories 7. Input and Output 7.1. Fancier Output Formatting 7.1.1. Old string formatting 7.2. Reading and Writing Files 7.2.1. Methods of File Objects 7.2.2. Saving structured data with json 8. Errors and Exceptions 8.1. Syntax Errors 8.2. Exceptions 8.3. Handling Exceptions 8.4. Raising Exceptions 8.5. User-defined Exceptions 8.6. Defining Clean-up Actions 8.7. Predefined Clean-up Actions 9. Classes 9.1. A Word About Names and Objects 9.2. Python Scopes and Namespaces 9.2.1. Scopes and Namespaces Example 9.3. A First Look at Classes 9.3.1. Class Definition Syntax 9.3.2. Class Objects 9.3.3. Instance Objects 9.3.4. Method Objects 9.3.5. Class and Instance Variables 9.4. Random Remarks 9.5. Inheritance 9.5.1. Multiple Inheritance 9.6. Private Variables 9.7. Odds and Ends 9.8. Iterators 9.9. Generators 9.10. Generator Expressions 10. Brief Tour of the Standard Library 10.1. Operating System Interface 10.2. File Wildcards 10.3. Command Line Arguments 10.4. Error Output Redirection and Program Termination 10.5. String Pattern Matching 10.6. Mathematics 10.7. Internet Access 10.8. Dates and Times 10.9. Data Compression 10.10. Performance Measurement 10.11. Quality Control 10.12. Batteries Included 11. Brief Tour of the Standard Library — Part II 11.1. Output Formatting 11.2. Templating 11.3. Working with Binary Data Record Layouts 11.4. Multi-threading 11.5. Logging 11.6. Weak References 11.7. Tools for Working with Lists 11.8. Decimal Floating Point Arithmetic 12. Virtual Environments and Packages 12.1. Introduction 12.2. Creating Virtual Environments 12.3. Managing Packages with pip 13. What Now? 14. Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution 14.1. Tab Completion and History Editing 14.2. Alternatives to the Interactive Interpreter 15. Floating Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations 15.1. Representation Error 16. Appendix 16.1. Interactive Mode 16.1.1. Error Handling 16.1.2. Executable Python Scripts 16.1.3. The Interactive Startup File 16.1.4. The Customization Modules Python Setup and Usage 1. Command line and environment 1.1. Command line 1.1.1. Interface options 1.1.2. Generic options 1.1.3. Miscellaneous options 1.1.4. Options you shouldn’t use 1.2. Environment variables 1.2.1. Debug-mode variables 2. Using Python on Unix platforms 2.1. Getting and installing the latest version of Python 2.1.1. On Linux 2.1.2. On FreeBSD and OpenBSD 2.1.3. On OpenSolaris 2.2. Building Python 2.3. Python-related paths and files 2.4. Miscellaneous 2.5. Editors and IDEs 3. Using Python on Windows 3.1. Installing Python 3.1.1. Supported Versions 3.1.2. Installation Steps 3.1.3. Removing the MAX_PATH Limitation 3.1.4. Installing Without UI 3.1.5. Installing Without Downloading 3.1.6. Modifying an install 3.1.7. Other Platforms 3.2. Alternative bundles 3.3. Configuring Python 3.3.1. Excursus: Setting environment variables 3.3.2. Finding the Python executable 3.4. Python Launcher for Windows 3.4.1. Getting started 3.4.1.1. From the command-line 3.4.1.2. Virtual environments 3.4.1.3. From a script 3.4.1.4. From file associations 3.4.2. Shebang Lines 3.4.3. Arguments in shebang lines 3.4.4. Customization 3.4.4.1. Customization via INI files 3.4.4.2. Customizing default Python versions 3.4.5. Diagnostics 3.5. Finding modules 3.6. Additional modules 3.6.1. PyWin32 3.6.2. cx_Freeze 3.6.3. WConio 3.7. Compiling Python on Windows 3.8. Embedded Distribution 3.8.1. Python Application 3.8.2. Embedding Python 3.9. Other resources 4. Using Python on a Macintosh 4.1. Getting and Installing MacPython 4.1.1. How to run a Python script 4.1.2. Running scripts with a GUI 4.1.3. Configuration 4.2. The IDE 4.3. Installing Additional Python Packages 4.4. GUI Programming on the Mac 4.5. Distributing Python Applications on the Mac 4.6. Other Resources The Python Language Reference 1. Introduction 1.1. Alternate Implementations 1.2. Notation 2. Lexical analysis 2.1. Line structure 2.1.1. Logical lines 2.1.2. Physical lines 2.1.3. Comments 2.1.4. Encoding declarations 2.1.5. Explicit line joining 2.1.6. Implicit line joining 2.1.7. Blank lines 2.1.8. Indentation 2.1.9. Whitespace between tokens 2.2. Other tokens 2.3. Identifiers and keywords 2.3.1. Keywords 2.3.2. Reserved classes of identifiers 2.4. Literals 2.4.1. String and Bytes literals 2.4.2. String literal concatenation 2.4.3. Formatted string literals 2.4.4. Numeric literals 2.4.5. Integer literals 2.4.6. Floating point literals 2.4.7. Imaginary literals 2.5. Operators 2.6. Delimiters 3. Data model 3.1. Objects, values and types 3.2. The standard type hierarchy 3.3. Special method names 3.3.1. Basic customization 3.3.2. Customizing attribute access 3.3.2.1. Customizing module attribute access 3.3.2.2. Implementing Descriptors 3.3.2.3. Invoking Descriptors 3.3.2.4. __slots__ 3.3.2.4.1. Notes on using __slots__ 3.3.3. Customizing class creation 3.3.3.1. Metaclasses 3.3.3.2. Determining the appropriate metaclass 3.3.3.3. Preparing the class namespace 3.3.3.4. Executing the class body 3.3.3.5. Creating the class object 3.3.3.6. Metaclass example 3.3.4. Customizing instance and subclass checks 3.3.5. Emulating callable objects 3.3.6. Emulating container types 3.3.7. Emulating numeric types 3.3.8. With Statement Context Managers 3.3.9. Special method lookup 3.4. Coroutines 3.4.1. Awaitable Objects 3.4.2. Coroutine Objects 3.4.3. Asynchronous Iterators 3.4.4. Asynchronous Context Managers 4. Execution model 4.1. Structure of a program 4.2. Naming and binding 4.2.1. Binding of names 4.2.2. Resolution of names 4.2.3. Builtins and restricted execution 4.2.4. Interaction with dynamic features 4.3. Exceptions 5. The import system 5.1. importlib 5.2. Packages 5.2.1. Regular packages 5.2.2. Namespace packages 5.3. Searching 5.3.1. The module cache 5.3.2. Finders and loaders 5.3.3. Import hooks 5.3.4. The meta path 5.4. Loading 5.4.1. Loaders 5.4.2. Submodules 5.4.3. Module spec 5.4.4. Import-related module attributes 5.4.5. module.__path__ 5.4.6. Module reprs 5.5. The Path Based Finder 5.5.1. Path entry finders 5.5.2. Path entry finder protocol 5.6. Replacing the standard import system 5.7. Special considerations for __main__ 5.7.1. __main__.__spec__ 5.8. Open issues 5.9. References 6. Expressions 6.1. Arithmetic conversions 6.2. Atoms 6.2.1. Identifiers (Names) 6.2.2. Literals 6.2.3. Parenthesized forms 6.2.4. Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries 6.2.5. List displays 6.2.6. Set displays 6.2.7. Dictionary displays 6.2.8. Generator expressions 6.2.9. Yield expressions 6.2.9.1. Generator-iterator methods 6.2.9.2. Examples 6.2.9.3. Asynchronous generator functions 6.2.9.4. Asynchronous generator-iterator methods 6.3. Primaries 6.3.1. Attribute references 6.3.2. Subscriptions 6.3.3. Slicings 6.3.4. Calls 6.4. Await expression 6.5. The power operator 6.6. Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations 6.7. Binary arithmetic operations 6.8. Shifting operations 6.9. Binary bitwise operations 6.10. Comparisons 6.10.1. Value comparisons 6.10.2. Membership test operations 6.10.3. Identity comparisons 6.11. Boolean operations 6.12. Conditional expressions 6.13. Lambdas 6.14. Expression lists 6.15. Evaluation order 6.16. Operator precedence 7. Simple statements 7.1. Expression statements 7.2. Assignment statements 7.2.1. Augmented assignment statements 7.2.2. Annotated assignment statements 7.3. The assert statement 7.4. The pass statement 7.5. The del statement 7.6. The return statement 7.7. The yield statement 7.8. The raise statement 7.9. The break statement 7.10. The continue statement 7.11. The import statement 7.11.1. Future statements 7.12. The global statement 7.13. The nonlocal statement 8. Compound statements 8.1. The if statement 8.2. The while statement 8.3. The for statement 8.4. The try statement 8.5. The with statement 8.6. Function definitions 8.7. Class definitions 8.8. Coroutines 8.8.1. Coroutine function definition 8.8.2. The async for statement 8.8.3. The async with statement 9. Top-level components 9.1. Complete Python programs 9.2. File input 9.3. Interactive input 9.4. Expression input 10. Full Grammar specification The Python Standard Library 1. Introduction 2. Built-in Functions 3. Built-in Constants 3.1. Constants added by the site module 4. Built-in Types 4.1. Truth Value Testing 4.2. Boolean Operations — and, or, not 4.3. Comparisons 4.4. Numeric Types — int, float, complex 4.4.1. Bitwise Operations on Integer Types 4.4.2. Additional Methods on Integer Types 4.4.3. Additional Methods on Float 4.4.4. Hashing of numeric types 4.5. Iterator Types 4.5.1. Generator Types 4.6. Sequence Types — list, tuple, range 4.6.1. Common Sequence Operations 4.6.2. Immutable Sequence Types 4.6.3. Mutable Sequence Types 4.6.4. Lists 4.6.5. Tuples 4.6.6. Ranges 4.7. Text Sequence Type — str 4.7.1. String Methods 4.7.2. printf-style String Formatting 4.8. Binary Sequence Types — bytes, bytearray, memoryview 4.8.1. Bytes Objects 4.8.2. Bytearray Objects 4.8.3. Bytes and Bytearray Operations 4.8.4. printf-style Bytes Formatting 4.8.5. Memory Views 4.9. Set Types — set, frozenset 4.10. Mapping Types — dict 4.10.1. Dictionary view objects 4.11. Context Manager Types 4.12. Other Built-in Types 4.12.1. Modules 4.12.2. Classes and Class Instances 4.12.3. Functions 4.12.4. Methods 4.12.5. Code Objects 4.12.6. Type Objects 4.12.7. The Null Object 4.12.8. The Ellipsis Object 4.12.9. The NotImplemented Object 4.12.10. Boolean Values 4.12.11. Internal Objects 4.13. Special Attributes 5. Built-in Exceptions 5.1. Base classes 5.2. Concrete exceptions 5.2.1. OS exceptions 5.3. Warnings 5.4. Exception hierarchy 6. Text Processing Services 6.1. string — Common string operations 6.1.1. String constants 6.1.2. Custom String Formatting 6.1.3. Format String Syntax 6.1.3.1. Format Specification Mini-Language 6.1.3.2. Format examples 6.1.4. Template strings 6.1.5. Helper functions 6.2. re — Regular expression operations 6.2.1. Regular Expression Syntax 6.2.2. Module Contents 6.2.3. Regular Expression Objects 6.2.4. Match Objects 6.2.5. Regular Expression Examples 6.2.5.1. Checking for a Pair 6.2.5.2. Simulating scanf() 6.2.5.3. search() vs. match() 6.2.5.4. Making a Phonebook 6.2.5.5. Text Munging 6.2.5.6. Finding all Adverbs 6.2.5.7. Finding all Adverbs and their Positions 6.2.5.8. Raw String Notation 6.2.5.9. Writing a Tokenizer 6.3. difflib — Helpers for computing deltas 6.3.1. SequenceMatcher Objects 6.3.2. SequenceMatcher Examples 6.3.3. Differ Objects 6.3.4. Differ Example 6.3.5. A command-line interface to difflib 6.4. textwrap — Text wrapping and filling 6.5. unicodedata — Unicode Database 6.6. stringprep — Internet String Preparation 6.7. readline — GNU readline interface 6.7.1. Init file 6.7.2. Line buffer 6.7.3. History file 6.7.4. History list 6.7.5. Startup hooks 6.7.6. Completion 6.7.7. Example 6.8. rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline 6.8.1. Completer Objects 7. Binary Data Services 7.1. struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data 7.1.1. Functions and Exceptions 7.1.2. Format Strings 7.1.2.1. Byte Order, Size, and Alignment 7.1.2.2. Format Characters 7.1.2.3. Examples 7.1.3. Classes 7.2. codecs — Codec registry and base classes 7.2.1. Codec Base Classes 7.2.1.1. Error Handlers 7.2.1.2. Stateless Encoding and Decoding 7.2.1.3. Incremental Encoding and Decoding 7.2.1.3.1. IncrementalEncoder Objects 7.2.1.3.2. IncrementalDecoder Objects 7.2.1.4. Stream Encoding and Decoding 7.2.1.4.1. StreamWriter Objects 7.2.1.4.2. StreamReader Objects 7.2.1.4.3. StreamReaderWriter Objects 7.2.1.4.4. StreamRecoder Objects 7.2.2. Encodings and Unicode 7.2.3. Standard Encodings 7.2.4. Python Specific Encodings 7.2.4.1. Text Encodings 7.2.4.2. Binary Transforms 7.2.4.3. Text Transforms 7.2.5. encodings.idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications 7.2.6. encodings.mbcs — Windows ANSI codepage 7.2.7. encodings.utf_8_sig — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature 8. Data Types 8.1. datetime — Basic date and time types 8.1.1. Available Types 8.1.2. timedelta Objects 8.1.3. date Objects 8.1.4. datetime Objects 8.1.5. time Objects 8.1.6. tzinfo Objects 8.1.7. timezone Objects 8.1.8. strftime() and strptime() Behavior 8.2. calendar — General calendar-related functions 8.3. collections — Container datatypes 8.3.1. ChainMap objects 8.3.1.1. ChainMap Examples and Recipes 8.3.2. Counter objects 8.3.3. deque objects 8.3.3.1. deque Recipes 8.3.4. defaultdict objects 8.3.4.1. defaultdict Examples 8.3.5. namedtuple() Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields 8.3.6. OrderedDict objects 8.3.6.1. OrderedDict Examples and Recipes 8.3.7. UserDict objects 8.3.8. UserList objects 8.3.9. UserString objects 8.4. collections.abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers 8.4.1. Collections Abstract Base Classes 8.5. heapq — Heap queue algorithm 8.5.1. Basic Examples 8.5.2. Priority Queue Implementation Notes 8.5.3. Theory 8.6. bisect — Array bisection algorithm 8.6.1. Searching Sorted Lists 8.6.2. Other Examples 8.7. array — Efficient arrays of numeric values 8.8. weakref — Weak references 8.8.1. Weak Reference Objects 8.8.2. Example 8.8.3. Finalizer Objects 8.8.4. Comparing finalizers with __del__() methods 8.9. types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types 8.9.1. Dynamic Type Creation 8.9.2. Standard Interpreter Types 8.9.3. Additional Utility Classes and Functions 8.9.4. Coroutine Utility Functions 8.10. copy — Shallow and deep copy operations 8.11. pprint — Data pretty printer 8.11.1. PrettyPrinter Objects 8.11.2. Example 8.12. reprlib — Alternate repr() implementation 8.12.1. Repr Objects 8.12.2. Subclassing Repr Objects 8.13. enum — Support for enumerations 8.13.1. Module Contents 8.13.2. Creating an Enum 8.13.3. Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes 8.13.4. Duplicating enum members and values 8.13.5. Ensuring unique enumeration values 8.13.6. Using automatic values 8.13.7. Iteration 8.13.8. Comparisons 8.13.9. Allowed members and attributes of enumerations 8.13.10. Restricted subclassing of enumerations 8.13.11. Pickling 8.13.12. Functional API 8.13.13. Derived Enumerations 8.13.13.1. IntEnum 8.13.13.2. IntFlag 8.13.13.3. Flag 8.13.13.4. Others 8.13.14. Interesting examples 8.13.14.1. Omitting values 8.13.14.1.1. Using auto 8.13.14.1.2. Using object 8.13.14.1.3. Using a descriptive string 8.13.14.1.4. Using a custom __new__() 8.13.14.2. OrderedEnum 8.13.14.3. DuplicateFreeEnum 8.13.14.4. Planet 8.13.15. How are Enums different? 8.13.15.1. Enum Classes 8.13.15.2. Enum Members (aka instances) 8.13.15.3. Finer Points 8.13.15.3.1. Supported __dunder__ names 8.13.15.3.2. Supported _sunder_ names 8.13.15.3.3. Enum member type 8.13.15.3.4. Boolean value of Enum classes and members 8.13.15.3.5. Enum classes with methods 8.13.15.3.6. Combining members of Flag 9. Numeric and Mathematical Modules 9.1. numbers — Numeric abstract base classes 9.1.1. The numeric tower 9.1.2. Notes for type implementors 9.1.2.1. Adding More Numeric ABCs 9.1.2.2. Implementing the arithmetic operations 9.2. math — Mathematical functions 9.2.1. Number-theoretic and representation functions 9.2.2. Power and logarithmic functions 9.2.3. Trigonometric functions 9.2.4. Angular conversion 9.2.5. Hyperbolic functions 9.2.6. Special functions 9.2.7. Constants 9.3. cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers 9.3.1. Conversions to and from polar coordinates 9.3.2. Power and logarithmic functions 9.3.3. Trigonometric functions 9.3.4. Hyperbolic functions 9.3.5. Classification functions 9.3.6. Constants 9.4. decimal — Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic 9.4.1. Quick-start Tutorial 9.4.2. Decimal objects 9.4.2.1. Logical operands 9.4.3. Context objects 9.4.4. Constants 9.4.5. Rounding modes 9.4.6. Signals 9.4.7. Floating Point Notes 9.4.7.1. Mitigating round-off error with increased precision 9.4.7.2. Special values 9.4.8. Working with threads 9.4.9. Recipes 9.4.10. Decimal FAQ 9.5. fractions — Rational numbers 9.6. random — Generate pseudo-random numbers 9.6.1. Bookkeeping functions 9.6.2. Functions for integers 9.6.3. Functions for sequences 9.6.4. Real-valued distributions 9.6.5. Alternative Generator 9.6.6. Notes on Reproducibility 9.6.7. Examples and Recipes 9.7. statistics — Mathematical statistics functions 9.7.1. Averages and measures of central location 9.7.2. Measures of spread 9.7.3. Function details 9.7.4. Exceptions 10. Functional Programming Modules 10.1. itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping 10.1.1. Itertool functions 10.1.2. Itertools Recipes 10.2. functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects 10.2.1. partial Objects 10.3. operator — Standard operators as functions 10.3.1. Mapping Operators to Functions 10.3.2. Inplace Operators 11. File and Directory Access 11.1. pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths 11.1.1. Basic use 11.1.2. Pure paths 11.1.2.1. General properties 11.1.2.2. Operators 11.1.2.3. Accessing individual parts 11.1.2.4. Methods and properties 11.1.3. Concrete paths 11.1.3.1. Methods 11.2. os.path — Common pathname manipulations 11.3. fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams 11.4. stat — Interpreting stat() results 11.5. filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons 11.5.1. The dircmp class 11.6. tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories 11.6.1. Examples 11.6.2. Deprecated functions and variables 11.7. glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion 11.8. fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching 11.9. linecache — Random access to text lines 11.10. shutil — High-level file operations 11.10.1. Directory and files operations 11.10.1.1. copytree example 11.10.1.2. rmtree example 11.10.2. Archiving operations 11.10.2.1. Archiving example 11.10.3. Querying the size of the output terminal 11.11. macpath — Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions 12. Data Persistence 12.1. pickle — Python object serialization 12.1.1. Relationship to other Python modules 12.1.1.1. Comparison with marshal 12.1.1.2. Comparison with json 12.1.2. Data stream format 12.1.3. Module Interface 12.1.4. What can be pickled and unpickled? 12.1.5. Pickling Class Instances 12.1.5.1. Persistence of External Objects 12.1.5.2. Dispatch Tables 12.1.5.3. Handling Stateful Objects 12.1.6. Restricting Globals 12.1.7. Performance 12.1.8. Examples 12.2. copyreg — Register pickle support functions 12.2.1. Example 12.3. shelve — Python object persistence 12.3.1. Restrictions 12.3.2. Example 12.4. marshal — Internal Python object serialization 12.5. dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases” 12.5.1. dbm.gnu — GNU’s reinterpretation of dbm 12.5.2. dbm.ndbm — Interface based on ndbm 12.5.3. dbm.dumb — Portable DBM implementation 12.6. sqlite3 — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases 12.6.1. Module functions and constants 12.6.2. Connection Objects 12.6.3. Cursor Objects 12.6.4. Row Objects 12.6.5. Exceptions 12.6.6. SQLite and Python types 12.6.6.1. Introduction 12.6.6.2. Using adapters to store additional Python types in SQLite databases 12.6.6.2.1. Letting your object adapt itself 12.6.6.2.2. Registering an adapter callable 12.6.6.3. Converting SQLite values to custom Python types 12.6.6.4. Default adapters and converters 12.6.7. Controlling Transactions 12.6.8. Using sqlite3 efficiently 12.6.8.1. Using shortcut methods 12.6.8.2. Accessing columns by name instead of by index 12.6.8.3. Using the connection as a context manager 12.6.9. Common issues 12.6.9.1. Multithreading 13. Data Compression and Archiving 13.1. zlib — Compression compatible with gzip 13.2. gzip — Support for gzip files 13.2.1. Examples of usage 13.3. bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression 13.3.1. (De)compression of files 13.3.2. Incremental (de)compression 13.3.3. One-shot (de)compression 13.4. lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm 13.4.1. Reading and writing compressed files 13.4.2. Compressing and decompressing data in memory 13.4.3. Miscellaneous 13.4.4. Specifying custom filter chains 13.4.5. Examples 13.5. zipfile — Work with ZIP archives 13.5.1. ZipFile Objects 13.5.2. PyZipFile Objects 13.5.3. ZipInfo Objects 13.5.4. Command-Line Interface 13.5.4.1. Command-line options 13.6. tarfile — Read and write tar archive files 13.6.1. TarFile Objects 13.6.2. TarInfo Objects 13.6.3. Command-Line Interface 13.6.3.1. Command-line options 13.6.4. Examples 13.6.5. Supported tar formats 13.6.6. Unicode issues 14. File Formats 14.1. csv — CSV File Reading and Writing 14.1.1. Module Contents 14.1.2. Dialects and Formatting Parameters 14.1.3. Reader Objects 14.1.4. Writer Objects 14.1.5. Examples 14.2. configparser — Configuration file parser 14.2.1. Quick Start 14.2.2. Supported Datatypes 14.2.3. Fallback Values 14.2.4. Supported INI File Structure 14.2.5. Interpolation of values 14.2.6. Mapping Protocol Access 14.2.7. Customizing Parser Behaviour 14.2.8. Legacy API Examples 14.2.9. ConfigParser Objects 14.2.10. RawConfigParser Objects 14.2.11. Exceptions 14.3. netrc — netrc file processing 14.3.1. netrc Objects 14.4. xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data 14.4.1. Packer Objects 14.4.2. Unpacker Objects 14.4.3. Exceptions 14.5. plistlib — Generate and parse Mac OS X .plist files 14.5.1. Examples 15. Cryptographic Services 15.1. hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests 15.1.1. Hash algorithms 15.1.2. SHAKE variable length digests 15.1.3. Key derivation 15.1.4. BLAKE2 15.1.4.1. Creating hash objects 15.1.4.2. Constants 15.1.4.3. Examples 15.1.4.3.1. Simple hashing 15.1.4.3.2. Using different digest sizes 15.1.4.3.3. Keyed hashing 15.1.4.3.4. Randomized hashing 15.1.4.3.5. Personalization 15.1.4.3.6. Tree mode 15.1.4.4. Credits 15.2. hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication 15.3. secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets 15.3.1. Random numbers 15.3.2. Generating tokens 15.3.2.1. How many bytes should tokens use? 15.3.3. Other functions 15.3.4. Recipes and best practices 16. Generic Operating System Services 16.1. os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces 16.1.1. File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment Variables 16.1.2. Process Parameters 16.1.3. File Object Creation 16.1.4. File Descriptor Operations 16.1.4.1. Querying the size of a terminal 16.1.4.2. Inheritance of File Descriptors 16.1.5. Files and Directories 16.1.5.1. Linux extended attributes 16.1.6. Process Management 16.1.7. Interface to the scheduler 16.1.8. Miscellaneous System Information 16.1.9. Random numbers 16.2. io — Core tools for working with streams 16.2.1. Overview 16.2.1.1. Text I/O 16.2.1.2. Binary I/O 16.2.1.3. Raw I/O 16.2.2. High-level Module Interface 16.2.2.1. In-memory streams 16.2.3. Class hierarchy 16.2.3.1. I/O Base Classes 16.2.3.2. Raw File I/O 16.2.3.3. Buffered Streams 16.2.3.4. Text I/O 16.2.4. Performance 16.2.4.1. Binary I/O 16.2.4.2. Text I/O 16.2.4.3. Multi-threading 16.2.4.4. Reentrancy 16.3. time — Time access and conversions 16.3.1. Functions 16.3.2. Clock ID Constants 16.3.3. Timezone Constants 16.4. argparse — Parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commands 16.4.1. Example 16.4.1.1. Creating a parser 16.4.1.2. Adding arguments 16.4.1.3. Parsing arguments 16.4.2. ArgumentParser objects 16.4.2.1. prog 16.4.2.2. usage 16.4.2.3. description 16.4.2.4. epilog 16.4.2.5. parents 16.4.2.6. formatter_class 16.4.2.7. prefix_chars 16.4.2.8. fromfile_prefix_chars 16.4.2.9. argument_default 16.4.2.10. allow_abbrev 16.4.2.11. conflict_handler 16.4.2.12. add_help 16.4.3. The add_argument() method 16.4.3.1. name or flags 16.4.3.2. action 16.4.3.3. nargs 16.4.3.4. const 16.4.3.5. default 16.4.3.6. type 16.4.3.7. choices 16.4.3.8. required 16.4.3.9. help 16.4.3.10. metavar 16.4.3.11. dest 16.4.3.12. Action classes 16.4.4. The parse_args() method 16.4.4.1. Option value syntax 16.4.4.2. Invalid arguments 16.4.4.3. Arguments containing - 16.4.4.4. Argument abbreviations (prefix matching) 16.4.4.5. Beyond sys.argv 16.4.4.6. The Namespace object 16.4.5. Other utilities 16.4.5.1. Sub-commands 16.4.5.2. FileType objects 16.4.5.3. Argument groups 16.4.5.4. Mutual exclusion 16.4.5.5. Parser defaults 16.4.5.6. Printing help 16.4.5.7. Partial parsing 16.4.5.8. Customizing file parsing 16.4.5.9. Exiting methods 16.4.6. Upgrading optparse code 16.5. getopt — C-style parser for command line options 16.6. logging — Logging facility for Python 16.6.1. Logger Objects 16.6.2. Logging Levels 16.6.3. Handler Objects 16.6.4. Formatter Objects 16.6.5. Filter Objects 16.6.6. LogRecord Objects 16.6.7. LogRecord attributes 16.6.8. LoggerAdapter Objects 16.6.9. Thread Safety 16.6.10. Module-Level Functions 16.6.11. Module-Level Attributes 16.6.12. Integration with the warnings module 16.7. logging.config — Logging configuration 16.7.1. Configuration functions 16.7.2. Configuration dictionary schema 16.7.2.1. Dictionary Schema Details 16.7.2.2. Incremental Configuration 16.7.2.3. Object connections 16.7.2.4. User-defined objects 16.7.2.5. Access to external objects 16.7.2.6. Access to internal objects 16.7.2.7. Import resolution and custom importers 16.7.3. Configuration file format 16.8. logging.handlers — Logging handlers 16.8.1. StreamHandler 16.8.2. FileHandler 16.8.3. NullHandler 16.8.4. WatchedFileHandler 16.8.5. BaseRotatingHandler 16.8.6. RotatingFileHandler 16.8.7. TimedRotatingFileHandler 16.8.8. SocketHandler 16.8.9. DatagramHandler 16.8.10. SysLogHandler 16.8.11. NTEventLogHandler 16.8.12. SMTPHandler 16.8.13. MemoryHandler 16.8.14. HTTPHandler 16.8.15. QueueHandler 16.8.16. QueueListener 16.9. getpass — Portable password input 16.10. curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays 16.10.1. Functions 16.10.2. Window Objects 16.10.3. Constants 16.11. curses.textpad — Text input widget for curses programs 16.11.1. Textbox objects 16.12. curses.ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters 16.13. curses.panel — A panel stack extension for curses 16.13.1. Functions 16.13.2. Panel Objects 16.14. platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data 16.14.1. Cross Platform 16.14.2. Java Platform 16.14.3. Windows Platform 16.14.3.1. Win95/98 specific 16.14.4. Mac OS Platform 16.14.5. Unix Platforms 16.15. errno — Standard errno system symbols 16.16. ctypes — A foreign function library for Python 16.16.1. ctypes tutorial 16.16.1.1. Loading dynamic link libraries 16.16.1.2. Accessing functions from loaded dlls 16.16.1.3. Calling functions 16.16.1.4. Fundamental data types 16.16.1.5. Calling functions, continued 16.16.1.6. Calling functions with your own custom data types 16.16.1.7. Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes) 16.16.1.8. Return types 16.16.1.9. Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by reference) 16.16.1.10. Structures and unions 16.16.1.11. Structure/union alignment and byte order 16.16.1.12. Bit fields in structures and unions 16.16.1.13. Arrays 16.16.1.14. Pointers 16.16.1.15. Type conversions 16.16.1.16. Incomplete Types 16.16.1.17. Callback functions 16.16.1.18. Accessing values exported from dlls 16.16.1.19. Surprises 16.16.1.20. Variable-sized data types 16.16.2. ctypes reference 16.16.2.1. Finding shared libraries 16.16.2.2. Loading shared libraries 16.16.2.3. Foreign functions 16.16.2.4. Function prototypes 16.16.2.5. Utility functions 16.16.2.6. Data types 16.16.2.7. Fundamental data types 16.16.2.8. Structured data types 16.16.2.9. Arrays and pointers 17. Concurrent Execution 17.1. threading — Thread-based parallelism 17.1.1. Thread-Local Data 17.1.2. Thread Objects 17.1.3. Lock Objects 17.1.4. RLock Objects 17.1.5. Condition Objects 17.1.6. Semaphore Objects 17.1.6.1. Semaphore Example 17.1.7. Event Objects 17.1.8. Timer Objects 17.1.9. Barrier Objects 17.1.10. Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the with statement 17.2. multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism 17.2.1. Introduction 17.2.1.1. The Process class 17.2.1.2. Contexts and start methods 17.2.1.3. Exchanging objects between processes 17.2.1.4. Synchronization between processes 17.2.1.5. Sharing state between processes 17.2.1.6. Using a pool of workers 17.2.2. Reference 17.2.2.1. Process and exceptions 17.2.2.2. Pipes and Queues 17.2.2.3. Miscellaneous 17.2.2.4. Connection Objects 17.2.2.5. Synchronization primitives 17.2.2.6. Shared ctypes Objects 17.2.2.6.1. The multiprocessing.sharedctypes module 17.2.2.7. Managers 17.2.2.7.1. Customized managers 17.2.2.7.2. Using a remote manager 17.2.2.8. Proxy Objects 17.2.2.8.1. Cleanup 17.2.2.9. Process Pools 17.2.2.10. Listeners and Clients 17.2.2.10.1. Address Formats 17.2.2.11. Authentication keys 17.2.2.12. Logging 17.2.2.13. The multiprocessing.dummy module 17.2.3. Programming guidelines 17.2.3.1. All start methods 17.2.3.2. The spawn and forkserver start methods 17.2.4. Examples 17.3. The concurrent package 17.4. concurrent.futures — Launching parallel tasks 17.4.1. Executor Objects 17.4.2. ThreadPoolExecutor 17.4.2.1. ThreadPoolExecutor Example 17.4.3. ProcessPoolExecutor 17.4.3.1. ProcessPoolExecutor Example 17.4.4. Future Objects 17.4.5. Module Functions 17.4.6. Exception classes 17.5. subprocess — Subprocess management 17.5.1. Using the subprocess Module 17.5.1.1. Frequently Used Arguments 17.5.1.2. Popen Constructor 17.5.1.3. Exceptions 17.5.2. Security Considerations 17.5.3. Popen Objects 17.5.4. Windows Popen Helpers 17.5.4.1. Constants 17.5.5. Older high-level API 17.5.6. Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module 17.5.6.1. Replacing /bin/sh shell backquote 17.5.6.2. Replacing shell pipeline 17.5.6.3. Replacing os.system&#40;&#41; 17.5.6.4. Replacing the os.spawn family 17.5.6.5. Replacing os.popen(), os.popen2(), os.popen3() 17.5.6.6. Replacing functions from the popen2 module 17.5.7. Legacy Shell Invocation Functions 17.5.8. Notes 17.5.8.1. Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows 17.6. sched — Event scheduler 17.6.1. Scheduler Objects 17.7. queue — A synchronized queue class 17.7.1. Queue Objects 17.8. dummy_threading — Drop-in replacement for the threading module 17.9. _thread — Low-level threading API 17.10. _dummy_thread — Drop-in replacement for the _thread module 18. Interprocess Communication and Networking 18.1. socket — Low-level networking interface 18.1.1. Socket families 18.1.2. Module contents 18.1.2.1. Exceptions 18.1.2.2. Constants 18.1.2.3. Functions 18.1.2.3.1. Creating sockets 18.1.2.3.2. Other functions 18.1.3. Socket Objects 18.1.4. Notes on socket timeouts 18.1.4.1. Timeouts and the connect method 18.1.4.2. Timeouts and the accept method 18.1.5. Example 18.2. ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects 18.2.1. Functions, Constants, and Exceptions 18.2.1.1. Socket creation 18.2.1.2. Context creation 18.2.1.3. Random generation 18.2.1.4. Certificate handling 18.2.1.5. Constants 18.2.2. SSL Sockets 18.2.3. SSL Contexts 18.2.4. Certificates 18.2.4.1. Certificate chains 18.2.4.2. CA certificates 18.2.4.3. Combined key and certificate 18.2.4.4. Self-signed certificates 18.2.5. Examples 18.2.5.1. Testing for SSL support 18.2.5.2. Client-side operation 18.2.5.3. Server-side operation 18.2.6. Notes on non-blocking sockets 18.2.7. Memory BIO Support 18.2.8. SSL session 18.2.9. Security considerations 18.2.9.1. Best defaults 18.2.9.2. Manual settings 18.2.9.2.1. Verifying certificates 18.2.9.2.2. Protocol versions 18.2.9.2.3. Cipher selection 18.2.9.3. Multi-processing 18.2.10. LibreSSL support 18.3. select — Waiting for I/O completion 18.3.1. /dev/poll Polling Objects 18.3.2. Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects 18.3.3. Polling Objects 18.3.4. Kqueue Objects 18.3.5. Kevent Objects 18.4. selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing 18.4.1. Introduction 18.4.2. Classes 18.4.3. Examples 18.5. asyncio — Asynchronous I/O, event loop, coroutines and tasks 18.5.1. Base Event Loop 18.5.1.1. Run an event loop 18.5.1.2. Calls 18.5.1.3. Delayed calls 18.5.1.4. Futures 18.5.1.5. Tasks 18.5.1.6. Creating connections 18.5.1.7. Creating listening connections 18.5.1.8. Watch file descriptors 18.5.1.9. Low-level socket operations 18.5.1.10. Resolve host name 18.5.1.11. Connect pipes 18.5.1.12. UNIX signals 18.5.1.13. Executor 18.5.1.14. Error Handling API 18.5.1.15. Debug mode 18.5.1.16. Server 18.5.1.17. Handle 18.5.1.18. Event loop examples 18.5.1.18.1. Hello World with call_soon() 18.5.1.18.2. Display the current date with call_later() 18.5.1.18.3. Watch a file descriptor for read events 18.5.1.18.4. Set signal handlers for SIGINT and SIGTERM 18.5.2. Event loops 18.5.2.1. Event loop functions 18.5.2.2. Available event loops 18.5.2.3. Platform support 18.5.2.3.1. Windows 18.5.2.3.2. Mac OS X 18.5.2.4. Event loop policies and the default policy 18.5.2.5. Event loop policy interface 18.5.2.6. Access to the global loop policy 18.5.2.7. Customizing the event loop policy 18.5.3. Tasks and coroutines 18.5.3.1. Coroutines 18.5.3.1.1. Example: Hello World coroutine 18.5.3.1.2. Example: Coroutine displaying the current date 18.5.3.1.3. Example: Chain coroutines 18.5.3.2. InvalidStateError 18.5.3.3. TimeoutError 18.5.3.4. Future 18.5.3.4.1. Example: Future with run_until_complete() 18.5.3.4.2. Example: Future with run_forever() 18.5.3.5. Task 18.5.3.5.1. Example: Parallel execution of tasks 18.5.3.6. Task functions 18.5.4. Transports and protocols (callback based API) 18.5.4.1. Transports 18.5.4.1.1. BaseTransport 18.5.4.1.2. ReadTransport 18.5.4.1.3. WriteTransport 18.5.4.1.4. DatagramTransport 18.5.4.1.5. BaseSubprocessTransport 18.5.4.2. Protocols 18.5.4.2.1. Protocol classes 18.5.4.2.2. Connection callbacks 18.5.4.2.3. Streaming protocols 18.5.4.2.4. Datagram protocols 18.5.4.2.5. Flow control callbacks 18.5.4.2.6. Coroutines and protocols 18.5.4.3. Protocol examples 18.5.4.3.1. TCP echo client protocol 18.5.4.3.2. TCP echo server protocol 18.5.4.3.3. UDP echo client protocol 18.5.4.3.4. UDP echo server protocol 18.5.4.3.5. Register an open socket to wait for data using a protocol 18.5.5. Streams (coroutine based API) 18.5.5.1. Stream functions 18.5.5.2. StreamReader 18.5.5.3. StreamWriter 18.5.5.4. StreamReaderProtocol 18.5.5.5. IncompleteReadError 18.5.5.6. LimitOverrunError 18.5.5.7. Stream examples 18.5.5.7.1. TCP echo client using streams 18.5.5.7.2. TCP echo server using streams 18.5.5.7.3. Get HTTP headers 18.5.5.7.4. Register an open socket to wait for data using streams 18.5.6. Subprocess 18.5.6.1. Windows event loop 18.5.6.2. Create a subprocess: high-level API using Process 18.5.6.3. Create a subprocess: low-level API using subprocess.Popen 18.5.6.4. Constants 18.5.6.5. Process 18.5.6.6. Subprocess and threads 18.5.6.7. Subprocess examples 18.5.6.7.1. Subprocess using transport and protocol 18.5.6.7.2. Subprocess using streams 18.5.7. Synchronization primitives 18.5.7.1. Locks 18.5.7.1.1. Lock 18.5.7.1.2. Event 18.5.7.1.3. Condition 18.5.7.2. Semaphores 18.5.7.2.1. Semaphore 18.5.7.2.2. BoundedSemaphore 18.5.8. Queues 18.5.8.1. Queue 18.5.8.2. PriorityQueue 18.5.8.3. LifoQueue 18.5.8.3.1. Exceptions 18.5.9. Develop with asyncio 18.5.9.1. Debug mode of asyncio 18.5.9.2. Cancellation 18.5.9.3. Concurrency and multithreading 18.5.9.4. Handle blocking functions correctly 18.5.9.5. Logging 18.5.9.6. Detect coroutine objects never scheduled 18.5.9.7. Detect exceptions never consumed 18.5.9.8. Chain coroutines correctly 18.5.9.9. Pending task destroyed 18.5.9.10. Close transports and event loops 18.6. asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler 18.6.1. asyncore Example basic HTTP client 18.6.2. asyncore Example basic echo server 18.7. asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler 18.7.1. asynchat Example 18.8. signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events 18.8.1. General rules 18.8.1.1. Execution of Python signal handlers 18.8.1.2. Signals and threads 18.8.2. Module contents 18.8.3. Example 18.9. mmap — Memory-mapped file support 19. Internet Data Handling 19.1. email — An email and MIME handling package 19.1.1. email.message: Representing an email message 19.1.2. email.parser: Parsing email messages 19.1.2.1. FeedParser API 19.1.2.2. Parser API 19.1.2.3. Additional notes 19.1.3. email.generator: Generating MIME documents 19.1.4. email.policy: Policy Objects 19.1.5. email.errors: Exception and Defect classes 19.1.6. email.headerregistry: Custom Header Objects 19.1.7. email.contentmanager: Managing MIME Content 19.1.7.1. Content Manager Instances 19.1.8. email: Examples 19.1.9. email.message.Message: Representing an email message using the compat32 API 19.1.10. email.mime: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch 19.1.11. email.header: Internationalized headers 19.1.12. email.charset: Representing character sets 19.1.13. email.encoders: Encoders 19.1.14. email.utils: Miscellaneous utilities 19.1.15. email.iterators: Iterators 19.2. json — JSON encoder and decoder 19.2.1. Basic Usage 19.2.2. Encoders and Decoders 19.2.3. Exceptions 19.2.4. Standard Compliance and Interoperability 19.2.4.1. Character Encodings 19.2.4.2. Infinite and NaN Number Values 19.2.4.3. Repeated Names Within an Object 19.2.4.4. Top-level Non-Object, Non-Array Values 19.2.4.5. Implementation Limitations 19.2.5. Command Line Interface 19.2.5.1. Command line options 19.3. mailcap — Mailcap file handling 19.4. mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats 19.4.1. Mailbox objects 19.4.1.1. Maildir 19.4.1.2. mbox 19.4.1.3. MH 19.4.1.4. Babyl 19.4.1.5. MMDF 19.4.2. Message objects 19.4.2.1. MaildirMessage 19.4.2.2. mboxMessage 19.4.2.3. MHMessage 19.4.2.4. BabylMessage 19.4.2.5. MMDFMessage 19.4.3. Exceptions 19.4.4. Examples 19.5. mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types 19.5.1. MimeTypes Objects 19.6. base64 — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings 19.7. binhex — Encode and decode binhex4 files 19.7.1. Notes 19.8. binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII 19.9. quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data 19.10. uu — Encode and decode uuencode files 20. Structured Markup Processing Tools 20.1. html — HyperText Markup Language support 20.2. html.parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser 20.2.1. Example HTML Parser Application 20.2.2. HTMLParser Methods 20.2.3. Examples 20.3. html.entities — Definitions of HTML general entities 20.4. XML Processing Modules 20.4.1. XML vulnerabilities 20.4.2. The defusedxml and defusedexpat Packages 20.5. xml.etree.ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API 20.5.1. Tutorial 20.5.1.1. XML tree and elements 20.5.1.2. Parsing XML 20.5.1.3. Pull API for non-blocking parsing 20.5.1.4. Finding interesting elements 20.5.1.5. Modifying an XML File 20.5.1.6. Building XML documents 20.5.1.7. Parsing XML with Namespaces 20.5.1.8. Additional resources 20.5.2. XPath support 20.5.2.1. Example 20.5.2.2. Supported XPath syntax 20.5.3. Reference 20.5.3.1. Functions 20.5.3.2. Element Objects 20.5.3.3. ElementTree Objects 20.5.3.4. QName Objects 20.5.3.5. TreeBuilder Objects 20.5.3.6. XMLParser Objects 20.5.3.7. XMLPullParser Objects 20.5.3.8. Exceptions 20.6. xml.dom — The Document Object Model API 20.6.1. Module Contents 20.6.2. Objects in the DOM 20.6.2.1. DOMImplementation Objects 20.6.2.2. Node Objects 20.6.2.3. NodeList Objects 20.6.2.4. DocumentType Objects 20.6.2.5. Document Objects 20.6.2.6. Element Objects 20.6.2.7. Attr Objects 20.6.2.8. NamedNodeMap Objects 20.6.2.9. Comment Objects 20.6.2.10. Text and CDATASection Objects 20.6.2.11. ProcessingInstruction Objects 20.6.2.12. Exceptions 20.6.3. Conformance 20.6.3.1. Type Mapping 20.6.3.2. Accessor Methods 20.7. xml.dom.minidom — Minimal DOM implementation 20.7.1. DOM Objects 20.7.2. DOM Example 20.7.3. minidom and the DOM standard 20.8. xml.dom.pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees 20.8.1. DOMEventStream Objects 20.9. xml.sax — Support for SAX2 parsers 20.9.1. SAXException Objects 20.10. xml.sax.handler — Base classes for SAX handlers 20.10.1. ContentHandler Objects 20.10.2. DTDHandler Objects 20.10.3. EntityResolver Objects 20.10.4. ErrorHandler Objects 20.11. xml.sax.saxutils — SAX Utilities 20.12. xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers 20.12.1. XMLReader Objects 20.12.2. IncrementalParser Objects 20.12.3. Locator Objects 20.12.4. InputSource Objects 20.12.5. The Attributes Interface 20.12.6. The AttributesNS Interface 20.13. xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat 20.13.1. XMLParser Objects 20.13.2. ExpatError Exceptions 20.13.3. Example 20.13.4. Content Model Descriptions 20.13.5. Expat error constants 21. Internet Protocols and Support 21.1. webbrowser — Convenient Web-browser controller 21.1.1. Browser Controller Objects 21.2. cgi — Common Gateway Interface support 21.2.1. Introduction 21.2.2. Using the cgi module 21.2.3. Higher Level Interface 21.2.4. Functions 21.2.5. Caring about security 21.2.6. Installing your CGI script on a Unix system 21.2.7. Testing your CGI script 21.2.8. Debugging CGI scripts 21.2.9. Common problems and solutions 21.3. cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts 21.4. wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation 21.4.1. wsgiref.util – WSGI environment utilities 21.4.2. wsgiref.headers – WSGI response header tools 21.4.3. wsgiref.simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server 21.4.4. wsgiref.validate — WSGI conformance checker 21.4.5. wsgiref.handlers – server/gateway base classes 21.4.6. Examples 21.5. urllib — URL handling modules 21.6. urllib.request — Extensible library for opening URLs 21.6.1. Request Objects 21.6.2. OpenerDirector Objects 21.6.3. BaseHandler Objects 21.6.4. HTTPRedirectHandler Objects 21.6.5. HTTPCookieProcessor Objects 21.6.6. ProxyHandler Objects 21.6.7. HTTPPasswordMgr Objects 21.6.8. HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects 21.6.9. AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects 21.6.10. HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects 21.6.11. ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects 21.6.12. AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects 21.6.13. HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects 21.6.14. ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects 21.6.15. HTTPHandler Objects 21.6.16. HTTPSHandler Objects 21.6.17. FileHandler Objects 21.6.18. DataHandler Objects 21.6.19. FTPHandler Objects 21.6.20. CacheFTPHandler Objects 21.6.21. UnknownHandler Objects 21.6.22. HTTPErrorProcessor Objects 21.6.23. Examples 21.6.24. Legacy interface 21.6.25. urllib.request Restrictions 21.7. urllib.response — Response classes used by urllib 21.8. urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components 21.8.1. URL Parsing 21.8.2. Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes 21.8.3. Structured Parse Results 21.8.4. URL Quoting 21.9. urllib.error — Exception classes raised by urllib.request 21.10. urllib.robotparser — Parser for robots.txt 21.11. http — HTTP modules 21.11.1. HTTP status codes 21.12. http.client — HTTP protocol client 21.12.1. HTTPConnection Objects 21.12.2. HTTPResponse Objects 21.12.3. Examples 21.12.4. HTTPMessage Objects 21.13. ftplib — FTP protocol client 21.13.1. FTP Objects 21.13.2. FTP_TLS Objects 21.14. poplib — POP3 protocol client 21.14.1. POP3 Objects 21.14.2. POP3 Example 21.15. imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client 21.15.1. IMAP4 Objects 21.15.2. IMAP4 Example 21.16. nntplib — NNTP protocol client 21.16.1. NNTP Objects 21.16.1.1. Attributes 21.16.1.2. Methods 21.16.2. Utility functions 21.17. smtplib — SMTP protocol client 21.17.1. SMTP Objects 21.17.2. SMTP Example 21.18. smtpd — SMTP Server 21.18.1. SMTPServer Objects 21.18.2. DebuggingServer Objects 21.18.3. PureProxy Objects 21.18.4. MailmanProxy Objects 21.18.5. SMTPChannel Objects 21.19. telnetlib — Telnet client 21.19.1. Telnet Objects 21.19.2. Telnet Example 21.20. uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122 21.20.1. Example 21.21. socketserver — A framework for network servers 21.21.1. Server Creation Notes 21.21.2. Server Objects 21.21.3. Request Handler Objects 21.21.4. Examples 21.21.4.1. socketserver.TCPServer Example 21.21.4.2. socketserver.UDPServer Example 21.21.4.3. Asynchronous Mixins 21.22. http.server — HTTP servers 21.23. http.cookies — HTTP state management 21.23.1. Cookie Objects 21.23.2. Morsel Objects 21.23.3. Example 21.24. http.cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients 21.24.1. CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects 21.24.2. FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers 21.24.3. CookiePolicy Objects 21.24.4. DefaultCookiePolicy Objects 21.24.5. Cookie Objec

【工业自动化】欧姆龙PLC产品线与编程软件应用：从选型架构到调试排错的全流程技术指南

内容概要：本文《欧姆龙PLC与编程软件完全手册》系统介绍了欧姆龙PLC的产品架构、软件体系、通信协议、选型策略及编程调试技巧。重点区分了两大技术平台：基于CX-Programmer的传统C系列（CP/CJ/CS）与基于Sysmac Studio的新一代Sysmac平台（NJ/NX/NY），强调二者在软件生态、寻址方式和通信架构上的根本差异。手册详细对比了各系列PLC的性能参数，并提供与西门子产品的功能对标，帮助用户快速定位。深入讲解了编程操作中的关键问题，如任务结构设计、间接寻址、FB封装陷阱、在线调试五件套等，特别指出“FB使能关闭时状态不初始化”等易出错点。最后汇总了选型路径与现场避坑清单，极具实战指导价值。; 适合人群：具备一定工业自动化基础，从事PLC编程、设备调试、系统集成的研发工程师和技术人员，尤其是从西门子平台转向欧姆龙或参与新项目选型的1-5年经验从业者。; 使用场景及目标：① 新项目选型时判断应选用C系列还是Sysmac平台；② 编程调试过程中掌握高效操作技巧与常见问题排查方法；③ 实现跨平台迁移、系统升级或接手他人项目时规避架构与逻辑陷阱；④ 提升对欧姆龙PLC任务机制、间接寻址、FB设计等高级功能的理解与应用能力。; 阅读建议：本手册理论结合实践，建议按“先架构后操作”的顺序阅读，重点章节需结合实际工程反复演练。特别是FB设计规范、任务切换处理、强制操作收尾流程等内容，应在仿真环境中验证后再应用于现场。注意版本匹配问题，操作前确认所用软件与控制器固件版本兼容。