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分了三个压缩包，请分别下载本书系统地介绍了业务建模、数据建模和应用程序建模的方法和过程，通过PowerDesigner的实现，使读者全面掌握软件分析建模的思想，是软件工程师学习软件分析、建模的入门教材。PowerDesigner 12．5集中体现了软件分析建模的最新成果，是市场占有率最高的软件分析建模平台。它将需求模型理论、业务流程理论、实体联系理论、统一建模理论贯穿其中，实现了业务建模、数据建模和应用程序建模的无缝集成。第1章软件分析建模基础 1.1 软件分析建模概述 1.2 业务建模概述 1.3 数据建模概述 1.3.1 概念数据模型 1.3.2 物理数据模型中的物理图 1.3.3 物理数据模型中的多维图 1.3.4 XML模型 1.4 应用程序建模概述 1.4.1 用例图 1.4.2 类图、对象图、组合结构图和包图 1.4.3 时序图、通信图、状态图、活动图和交互纵览图 1.4.4 组件图和部署图 1.5 辅助建模工具概述 1.6 分析建模实例 1.6.1 学生上机系统的业务建模 1.6.2 学生上机系统的数据建模 1.7 最具影响的软件分析建模平台 1.7.1 Sybase公司的软件分析建模平台简介 1.7.2 IBM公司的软件分析建模平台简介 1.7.3 CA公司的软件分析建模平台简介 1.7.4 Microsoft公司的软件分析建模平台简介第2章 PowerDesigner软件分析建模的基本概念 2.1 PowerDesigner概况 2.1.1 软件分析建模需要安装的软件 2.1.2 PowerDesigner能够完成的分析建模工作 2.1.3 PowerDesigner启动时的界面 2.1.4 PowerDesigner新建模型的步骤 2.1.5 模型类型的图标及扩展名 2.1.6 PowerDesigner的工具选项板 2.1.7 PowerDesigner模型对象的特性窗口 2.1.8 PowerDesigner模型对象的列表窗口 2.1.9 PowerDesigner检查模型的相关窗口 2.2 PowerDesigner的公共资源 2.3 模型间的生成和跟踪关系 2.3.1 模型、外部系统间的关系 2.3.2 各种模型与需求模型间的跟踪关系 2.4 模型对象的快捷方式 2.4.1 快捷方式的目标对象 2.4.2 产生快捷方式的方法 2.5 模型对象的复制品 2.5.1 复制品的源对象 2.5.仑产生复制品的方法 2.5.3 修改复制特性 2.6 模型的比较与合并 2.6.1 比较模型 2.6.2 合并模型 2.7 模型的影响分析 2.7.1 产生用户定义事件的方法 2.7.2 从企业知识库中提取模型的交叉依赖 2.7.3 改变影响传播的集合 2.8 模型对象的映射 2.8.1 模型对象映射的基本知识 2.8.2 启动映射编辑器的方法 2.8.3 映射编辑器界面 2.8.4 在映射编辑器窗口产生映射的方法 2.8.5 修改映射语法的方法 2.8.6 从对象特性窗口创建映射的方法 2.9 模型间生成的连接第3章 PowerDesigner的基本操作 3.1 分析建模环境的设置 3.1.1 设置环境选项 3.1.2 通用工具条 3.1.3 预定义符号工具条 3.2 模型对象操作 3.2.1 模型对象的图形符号 3.2.2 修改模型对象的显示参数 3.2.3 模型图形的打印 3.2.4 模型图形的导人和导出第4章需求模型及PowerDesigner实现 4.1 建立RQM的方法 4.1.1 RQM中的包 4.1.2 设置RQM的环境 4.2 需求文档视图 4.2.1 需求特性窗口的General选项卡 4.2.2 需求特性窗口的Detau选项卡 4.2.3 需求特性窗口的Traceabilityunks选项卡 4.2.4 需求特性窗口的UseiAllocations选项卡 4.2.5 需求特性窗口的其他特性选项卡 4.3 追踪矩阵视图 4.4 用户分配矩阵视图 4.5 RQM的有效性检查 4.6 需求与设计对象的连接 4.6.1 在需求上连接设计对象 4.6.2 在设计对象上连接需求 4.7 需求与设计对象的导人与导出 4.7.l把需求导出到设计模型中 4.7.2 把设计对象导人到RQM中 4.8 RQM与MSWord文档的信息交换 4.8.1 把Word文档导人到RQM中 4.8.2 把RQM导出到Wor.d文档中 4.8.3 更新RQM或Word文档 4.8.4 断开RQM与Word文档之间的连接第5章业务流程模型及PowerDesignet实现 5.1 BPM的3种图形 5.1.1 业务流程图 5.1.2 流程层次图 5.1.3 流程服务图 5.2 BPM的建立方法 5.3 分析型BP

二级减速器课程设计说明书，全英文书写《Machine Parts Design》 Design Specification Topic Designation of Reducer College College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering Major Mechanical Engineering Class 16机械工程3（国际化） No. of team Team 1 ID/Name 陈旭颖 16211452104 方琢 16211452105 李成雍 16211452106 Instructor Zhang Yi Date submitted 2019.01.11 Contents Abstract 1 Chapter 1 Course Design Task Book 3 1.1 Purpose 3 1.2 Description of design project 3 1.3 Design Data 4 Chapter 2 Integral Design Scheme of Transmission Device 4 2.1 Transmission Scheme 4 2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of this Scheme 4 Chapter 3 Selection of Motor 5 3.1 Motor Type Selection 5 3.2 Determination of the Efficiency of the Transmission 5 3.3 Selection of the motor capacity 5 3.4 Determination of the total transmission ratio and distribution transmission ratio of the transmission device 7 Chapter 4 Calculation of Dynamic Parameters 8 Chapter 5 Designation and calculation of high speed gear 11 5.1 Selection of gear type, accuracy grade, material and number of teeth 11 5.2 Design according to tooth surface contact fatigue strength 11 5.3 Determination of the sizes of transmission 15 5.4 Check the bending fatigue strength of tooth root 15 5.5 Calculations of other geometric dimensions of gear transmission 19 5.6 Summary of gear parameters and geometric dimensions 20 Chapter 6 Calculation of low-speed gear 21 6.1 Selection of gear type, accuracy grade, material and number of teeth 21 6.2 Designation according to tooth surface contact fatigue strength 22 6.3 Determination of the sizes of transmission 25 6.4 Check the bending fatigue strength of tooth root 26 6.5 Calculations of other geometric dimensions of gear transmission 30 6.6 Summary of gear parameters and geometric dimensions 30 Chapter 7 The designation of the shaft 32 7.1 Calculateion of High-speed shaft design 32 7.2 Calculation of jack shaft design 39 7.3 Calculation of low speed shaft 47 Chapter 8 Rolling bearing life check 53 8.1 Bearing check on high speed shaft 53 8.2 Bearing check on the jack shaft 55 8.3 Bearing check on the low speed shaft 57 Chapter 9 Key connection design calculation 58 9.1 Calculation check of coupling key connection 58 9.2 Calculation check of low speed pinion’s key connection 59 9.3 Calculation check of high speed main gear’s key connection 59 9.4 Calculation check of low speed main gear’s key connection 59 Chapter 10 Coupling selection 60 10.1 Coupling on the high speed shaft 60 10.2 Coupling on the low speed shaft 60 Chapter 11 Seal and lubricate the reducer 61 11.1 Selection of sealing 61 11.2 Gear lubrication 61 11.3 Bearing lubrication 62 Chapter 12 Reducer accessory 63 12.1 Oil level indicator 63 12.2 Ventilator 63 12.3 Drain plug 64 12.4 Peephole cover 65 12.5 Positioning pin 66 12.6 Cover screw 67 12.7 Lifting device 68 Chapter 13 Main structural dimensions of reducer housing 70 Chapter 14 Drawing of structure analysis of reduce 72 14.1 Drawing of assembly 72 14.2 Housing 73 14.3 Drawing of gears 74 14.4 Drawing of shafts 78 Chapter 15 Conclusion 81 15.1 Summary 81 15.2 Job description of team members 82 Reference 83 Attachment 84 Abstract Belt conveyor is a kind of friction driven to transport materials in a continuous way machinery. It Is mainly composed of irame conveyor belt, supporting roller, roller, tensioning device and belt conveyor motor device. It can put the material on a certain conveying line and form a conveying process of material from the initial feeding point to the final unloading point. It can not only carry out the transport of broken bulk materials, but also the transport of finished articles. In addition to the pure material transport, it can also cooperate with the requirements of the technological process in the production process of various industrial enterprises to form a rhythmic assembly line. Belt conveyor is widely used in metallurgy, coal, transportation, water and electricity, chemical and other departments, because it has a large amount of transport, simple structure, convenient maintenance, low cost, strong versatility and other advantages. Belt conveyor is also used in building materials, power, light industry, food, ports, ships and other departments. Main contents of this manual is for the design of belt conveyor drive system, the V belt transmission and twoestage cylindrical gear reducer, used in the design and calculation to the "machine design foundation", "mechanical drawing" "tolerance and interchangeability", “theoretical mechanics" courses, such as knowledge, and use AutoCAD software to carry on the drawing, so the comprehensive practice is a very important link, is also a comprehensive, standardized training in practice. Through this training, so that we have been in many aspects of training and training. It is mainly reflected in the following aspects. (1) we have cultivated the design idea of combining theory with practice, trained our ability to comprehensively apply the basic theory of mechanical design course and other related courses, analyze and solve practical engineering problems in combination with production practice, and consolidated, deepened and expanded the knowledge of relevant mechanical design. (2) through the standard mechanical parts. common mechanical transmission or simple mechanical design, so that we master the general mechanical design procedures and methods. establish a correct engineering desrgn Ideas. cultivate independence. comprehensive. Scientific engineering design ability and innovation ability. (3) in addition, it cultivates our ability to consult and use manuals, atlas and other relevant technical data, as well as the ability in calculation, drawing data processing and computer, aided design. (4) enhanced our understanding and application of the functions of Word and AutoCAD in office software. Keywords: reducer, transmission device, design, calculation, CAD Chapter 1 Course Design Task Book 1.1 Purpose According to the diagam of the belt conveyor system: (1) Plan and analysis of transmission device; (2) Selection of motor and calculation of kinematic and dynamic parameters in conveyor system; (3) Design of transmission parts (e.g. gear, worm or belt, etc.); (4) Design of shaft; (5) Design of bearing and its assemblies; (6) Selection and confirmation of key and coupling; (7) Design of lubrication; (8) Housing, framework and accessories; (9) Drawing of assembly and its components; (10) Design specification 1.2 Description of design project (a) running on two shifts per day in one-direction continuously; (b) stable loading; (c) starting with idling; (d) indoor setting with dust; (e) usage period: 10 years, minor overhaul period: 1 year, and overhaul period: 3 years; (f) power source is alternating three-phase voltage; (g) small-batch production in medium scale machinery plant; (h) allowed tolerance of conveyor speed is ± 5%. Working hours per day: 16 hours, working life: 10 years, working days per year: 300 days, equipped with three-phase AC power supply, voltage 380/220 V. 1.3 Design Data Working force of conveyor, F 2900N Speed of conveyor, v 1.5m/s Diameter, D 410mm Chapter 2 Integral Design Scheme of Transmission Device 2.1 Transmission Scheme Analysis of transmission scheme v-belt transmission is adopted . Considering the requirements of the project , I chose this scheme . Its transmission diagram is shown in figure 1-1. The transmission scheme has been given, and the reducer is a two-stage cylindrical gear reducer. 2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of this Scheme The extemal outline size of this scheme is large, with good shock absorption capacity, low manufacturing, stability accuracy with low cost, and overload protection. But because the gear relative to the bearing of the two-stage cylindrical gear reducer is arranged asymmetrically, the load distribution along the tooth direction is uneven, and the shaft stiffness is required. Chapter 3 Selection of Motor 3.1 Motor Type Selection According to the use of the Y-series general purpose fully closed self-cooled three-phase asynchronous motor. 3.2 Determination of the Efficiency of the Transmission According to table 2-1, we got： The Efficiency of coupling：η1=0.99 The Efficiency of rolling bearing：η2=0.99 The Efficiency of closed cylindrical gears：η3=0.98 The Efficiency of Working Machine：ηw=0.97 Total efficiency from motor to machine： ηa=η1×η24×η32×ηw=0.877 3.3 Selection of the motor capacity The power required by the working machine Pw: Rated power required by motor Pd: Work speed of transmission belt wheels nw： According to the recommended reasonable transmission ratio range in table 2-2, the transmission ratio range of the expanded two-stage gear reducer ia=8 ~ 40, the transmission ratio range of v-belt transmission is ib=2~4, so the theoretical transmission ratio range is=16~160. The optional speed range of the motor : nd=is*nw=(16 ~ 160) 69.91=559--2796r/min. After comprehensive consideration of price, weight, transmission ratio and other factors, the selected three-phase asynchronous motor model : Y132M2-6 . Rated power Pen=5.5kW，Full load speed nm=960r/min，Synchronous speed nt=1000r/min。 Serial Number Motor Type Synchronous Speed/(r/min) Rated Power/kW Full Speed/(r/min) 1 Y160M2-8 750 5.5 720 2 Y132M2-6 1000 5.5 960 3 Y132S-4 1500 5.5 1440 4 Y132S1-2 3000 5.5 2900 Figure 3-1 main size parameters of the motor Height of Center Dimensionof overall Dimensionof base mounting Diameter of anchor bolt hole Size of Axis stretch Size of key H L×HD A×B K D×E F×G 132 515×315 216×178 12 38×80 10×33 3.4 Determination of the total transmission ratio and distribution transmission ratio of the transmission device （1）Calculation of total transmission ratio According to the selected fullload speed of the motor nm and the drive shaft speed of the motor nw，we can calculate the total transmission ratio of the transmission device ia：（2）Allocate transmission ratio High speed stage transmission ratio i1 Then the transmission ratio of low-speed stage i2 Total transmission ratio of reducer ib Chapter 4 Calculation of Dynamic Parameters （1）The speed of each shaft： High speed shaft : Jack shaft ： Low speed shaft ： The working machine shaft : （2）Input power of each shaft： High speed shaft : Jack shaft ： Low speed shaft ： The working machine shaft : Then the output power of each shaft： High speed shaft : Jack shaft ： Low speed shaft ： The working machine shaft : （3）Input torque of each shaft： Motor shaft : High speed shaft : Jack shaft ： Low speed shaft ： The working machine shaft : Then the torque of each shaft： High speed shaft : Jack shaft ： Low speed shaft ： The working machine shaft : The rotational speed, power and torque of each shaft are listed in the following table name of the shaft rotating speed n /(r/min) power P/kW torque T/(N•m) Motor shaft 960 4.96 49.34 High speed shaft 960 4.91 48.84 Jack shaft 222.74 4.76 204.09 Low speed shaft 69.82 4.62 631.92 The working machine shaft 69.82 4.35 594.99 Chapter 5 Designation and calculation of high speed gear 5.1 Selection of gear type, accuracy grade, material and number of teeth 1. According to the transmission scheme, helical cylindrical gear transmission is selected，Pressure angle α=20°，Primary spiral Angle β=12°。 2. Refer to table 10-6 for level 7 accuracy. 3. Material selection : According to table 10-1, Pinion chosen: 40Cr (quenched and tempered), hardness: 280HBS; Main gear: 45 (quenched and tempered), hardness: 240HBS. 4. Number of pinion teeth: z1=24，number of main gear teeth: z2=z1×i=24×4.31=103. 5.2 Design according to tooth surface contact fatigue strength 1. The diameter of the dividing circle of the pinion is calculated by formula (10-24)，that is: (1) Determine the values of each parameter in the formula (1) Choose KHt=1.3 (2) Calculate the torque T transmitted by the pinion: (3) According to table 10-7, the tooth width coefficient: φd=1 (4) According to figure 10-20, regional coefficient: ZH=2.47 (5) According to table 10-5, the elastic influence coefficient of the material: ZE=189.8√MPa. (6)The contact fatigue strength Zε is calculated by formula (10-9). (7) The spiral Angle coefficient Zβ can be obtained from the formula. (8) Calculate the allowable contact fatigue stress[σH] According to figure 10-25d, the contact fatigue limit of pinion and large gear is respectively The stress cycle number is calculated from equation (10-15): Contact fatigue coefficients were obtained from FIG. 10-23 If the failure probability is 1% and the safety coefficient S=1,then: Take the smaller one of [σH]1 and [σH]2as the contact fatigue allowable stress of the gear pair, that is: (2) Calculate the diameter of the dividing circle of the pinion 2. Adjust the diameter of the dividing circle of the pinion (1) Data preparation before calculating actual load coefficient. (1) Circumferential velocity ν (2) Tooth width b (2) Calculate the actual load coefficient KH (1) According to table 10-2, KA=1 (2) According to v=1.827m/s and the accuracy of level 7, the dynamic load coefficient can be obtained from figure 10-8, Kv=1.035 (3) The circular force of a gear. In table 10-3, the load distribution coefficient between teeth was KH =1.4 When the accuracy of level 7 and the relative support of pinion are arranged asymmetrically by interpolation method, according to table 10-4, the distribution coefficient of load in tooth direction KHβ=1.417 Thus, the actual load coefficient KH is obtained (3) According to equation (10-12) and the actual load coefficient, the diameter of the dividing circle d1 can be obtained (4) Determine the modulus of 5.3 Determination of the sizes of transmission 1. Computing center distance a 2. The helix Angle is corrected according to the center distance after rounding β=12°19'58" 3. Calculate the dividing circle diameter d1 ,d2of small and big gear 4. Calculate the tooth width b Take B1=55mm, B2=50mm 5.4 Check the bending fatigue strength of tooth root The fatigue strength condition of tooth root bending: (1)T、mn and d1 are like the previous Tooth width: b=b2=50 Tooth shape coefficient YFa and stress correction coefficient YSa, the equivalent number of teeth: The equivalent number of teeth of pinion Zv1: Equivalent number of teeth of main gear Zv2: The tooth shape coefficient is obtained from FIG. 10-17 The stress correction coefficient is obtained from FIG. 10-18 (1) Choose load factor KFt=1.3 (2) From equation (10-18), the coincidence coefficient of bending fatigue strength Yε can be calculated Have a type: (3) From equation (10-19), obtain the spiral Angle coefficient of bending fatigue strength Yβ (2) Circumferential velocity (3) Aspect ratio b/h According to v=2.47m/s, level 7 accuracy, dynamic load coefficient can be found from figure 10-8, Kv=1.047 According to table 10-3 , load distribution coefficients between teeth KFα=1.4 According to table 10-4, KH =1.42 and b/h=50/4.5=11.111. According to figure 10-13, KF =1.079. Then the load coefficient is: According to FIG. 10-24c, the tooth root bending fatigue limit of pinion and big gear is respectively The bending fatigue coefficient KFN1 ,KFN2 was obtained from FIG. 10-22 The bending fatigue safety factor S=1.25, from equation (10-14) Check the bending fatigue strength of tooth root The bending fatigue strength of tooth root meets the requirement, and the ability of pinion to resist bending fatigue damage is greater than that of large gear. (4) The circular velocity of a gear Level 7 accuracy is appropriate. 5.5 Calculations of other geometric dimensions of gear transmission （1）Calculate the height of addendum tooth, dedendum tooth and total tooth （2）Calculate the addendum circle diameters of small and large gears （3）Calculate the diameter of dedendum circle of small and large gears 5.6 Summary of gear parameters and geometric dimensions Code name Calculated formula Pinion Main gear Modulus m 2 2 Spiral Angle β left-handed 12°19'58" right-handed 12°19'58" Coefficient of addendum height ha* 1.0 1.0 Tip clearance coefficient c* 0.25 0.25 Number of teeth z 24 103 Width of teeth B 55 50 Height of addendum teeth ha m×ha* 2 2 Height of dedendum teeth hf m×(ha*+c*) 2.5 2.5 Diameter of the dividing circle d 49.134 210.866 Addendum circle diameter da d+2×ha 53.134 214.866 Dedendum circle diameter df d-2×hf 44.134 205.866 Figure 5-1 structure diagram of high-speed main gear Chapter 6 Calculation of low-speed gear 6.1 Selection of gear type, accuracy grade, material and number of teeth 1. According to the transmission scheme, choose helical cylindrical gears，The pressure off for alpha = 20 °, primary spiral Angle beta = 12 °. 2. Refer to table 10-6 , choose level 7 accuracy. 3. Material selection According to table 10-1, choose pinion 40Cr (quenching and tempering), and the hardness was 280HBS; choose main gear 45 (quenching and tempering), and the hardness was 240HBS 4. Select the number of pinion teeth z1=25, then the number of large gear teethz2=z1×i=25×3.19=81. 6.2 Designation according to tooth surface contact fatigue strength 1. From formula (10-24), the diameter of the dividing circle of the pinion is calculated, i.e (1) Determine the values of each parameter in the formula (1) Choose KHt=1.3 (2) Calculate the torque transmitted by the pinion: (3) From table 10-7, the tooth width coefficient is φd=1 (4) From figure 10-20, Regional coefficient ZH=2.47 (5) From table 10-5, the elastic influence coefficient of the material ZE=189.8√MPa。 (6) From equation (10-9), the coincidence coefficient is used to calculate the contact fatigue strength Zε. (7) From the formula, the spiral Angle coefficient Zβ. (8) Calculate the allowable contact fatigue stress[σH] According to figure 10-25d, the contact fatigue limit of pinion and big gear is respectively From equation (10-15) , the number of stress cycles can be calculated : From figure10-23, check the contact fatigue coefficient If the failure probability is 1% and the safety coefficient S=1, then Take the smaller one of [σH]1 and [σH]2as the contact fatigue allowable stress of the gear pair, that is: (2) Calculate the diameter of the dividing circle of the pinion 2.Adjust the diameter of the dividing circle of the pinion (1) Data preparation before calculating actual load coefficient. (1) Circumferential velocity ν (2) Tooth width b (2) Calculate the actual load coefficient KH (1) According to table 10-2, KA=1 (2) According to v=0.666m/s and the accuracy of level 7, the dynamic load coefficient can be obtained from figure 10-8, Kv=1.013 (3) The circular force of a gear. In table 10-3, the load distribution coefficient between teeth was KH =1.2 When the accuracy of level 7 and the relative support of pinion are arranged asymmetrically by interpolation method, according to table 10-4, the distribution coefficient of load in tooth direction KHβ=1.421 Thus, the actual load coefficient KH is obtained (3) According to equation (10-12) and the actual load coefficient, the diameter of the dividing circle d1 can be obtained (4) Determine the modulus of 6.3 Determination of the sizes of transmission 1. Computing center distance a 2.The helix Angle is corrected according to the center distance after rounding β=12°43'9" 3. Calculate the dividing circle diameter d1 ,d2of small and big gear 4. Calculate the tooth width b Take B1=85mm B2=80mm 6.4 Check the bending fatigue strength of tooth root The fatigue strength condition of tooth root bending: (1)T、mn and d1 are like the previous Tooth width: b=b2=80 Tooth shape coefficient YFa and stress correction coefficient YSa, the equivalent number of teeth: Equivalent number of teeth of pinion Zv1: Equivalent number of teeth of main gear Zv2: The tooth shape coefficient is obtained from FIG. 10-17 The stress correction coefficient is obtained from FIG. 10-18 (1) Choose load factor KFt=1.3 (2) From equation (10-18), the coincidence coefficient of bending fatigue strength Yε can be calculated Have a type: (3) From equation (10-19), obtain the spiral Angle coefficient of bending fatigue strength Yβ (2) Circumferential velocity (3) Aspect ratio b/h According to v=0.9m/s, level 7 accuracy, dynamic load coefficient can be found from figure 10-8, Kv=1.017 According to table 10-3 , load distribution coefficients between teeth KFα=1.4 According to table 10-4, KHβ =1.427 and b/h=80/6.75=11.852. According to figure 10-13, KF =1.08. Then the load coefficient is: According to FIG. 10-24c, the tooth root bending fatigue limit of pinion and big gear is respectively The bending fatigue coefficient KFN1 ,KFN2 was obtained from FIG. 10-22 The bending fatigue safety factor S=1.25, from equation (10-14) Check the bending fatigue strength of tooth root The bending fatigue strength of tooth root meets the requirement, and the ability of pinion to resist bending fatigue damage is greater than that of large gear. (4) The circular velocity of a gear Level 7 accuracy is appropriate. 6.5 Calculations of other geometric dimensions of gear transmission （1）Calculate the height of addendum tooth, dedendum tooth and total tooth （2）Calculate the addendum circle diameters of small and large gears （3）Calculate the diameter of dedendum circle of small and large gears 6.6 Summary of gear parameters and geometric dimensions Code name Calculated formula Pinion Main gear Modulus m 3 3 Spiral Angle β left-handed 12°43'9" right-handed 12°43'9" Coefficient of addendum height ha* 1.0 1.0 Tip clearance coefficient c* 0.25 0.25 Number of teeth z 25 81 Width of teeth B 85 80 Height of addendum teeth ha m×ha* 3 3 Height of dedendum teeth hf m×(ha*+c*) 3.75 3.75 Diameter of the dividing circle d 76.887 249.113 Addendum circle diameter da d+2×ha 82.887 255.113 Dedendum circle diameter df d-2×hf 69.387 241.613 Figure 6-1 Low speed large gear structure drawing Chapter 7 The designation of the shaft 7.1 Calculateion of High-speed shaft design 1. Select the material on the shaft and determine the allowable stress Because the reducer is a general machine, there is no special requirement, so 40Cr (quenched and tempered) is selected, the hardness is 280HBS, check the table15-1,take σb=735MPa, σ-1b=60MPa 2. The minimum diameter of the shaft estimated according to the initial torsion strength Check table 15-3, take A0=112，so Shaft ends have 1 keyway, therefore, the axle diameter should be increased by 5% According to the table, the diameter of the standard axle hole is 22mm, so d=22 Figure 7-1 Schematic diagram of high-speed shaft (1) The minimum diameter of the input shaft is obviously d12, where the coupling is mounted. In order to adapt the selected shaft diameter d12 to the coupling aperture, the type of coupling should be selected. The calculated torque of the coupling Tca = KA×T, according to the table, thinking about the stability, we choose KA = 1.3, then: According to the condition that the torque Tca of the coupling should be less than the nominal torque of the coupling, refer to standard GB t4323-2002 or design manual, choose LX3 type coupling. The aperture of the semi-coupling is 22mm, the hub hole length of the semi-coupling and the shaft is 52mm. Choose ordinary flat keys,A type keys, b×h = 6×6mm(GB T 1096-2003), bond length L=40mm。 (2) Initial selection of rolling bearing. Since the bearing is subject to both radial and axial forces, angular contact bearing is selected. Referring to the work requirements and according to d23 = 27mm, select 7206AC angular contact bearing from bearing product catalog, its size: d×D×B = 30×62×16mm, so d34 = d78 = 30 mm. The positioning shaft shoulder height of 7206AC type bearing is found in the manual, h = 3 mm，then choose d45 = d67 = 36 mm. (3)Because the diameter of the gear is small, in order to ensure the strength of the gear wheel body, the gear and the shaft should be made into one and become the gear shaft. So l56 = 55 mm, d56 = 53.134 mm. (4) Thickness of bearing end covere=10, thickness of the gasketΔt=2. According to the bearing end cover for easy assembly and disassembly, ensure that the outer end face of the bearing end cover has a certain distance from the end face of the coupling, K=24; Screw C1=22mm, C2=20mm, thickness of box seat wall δ=8mm, then: (5) Take small spacing distance of enclosure wall Δ1 = 10 mm, the distance between high speed main gear and low speed pinion Δ3 = 15 mm distance. Considering about the housing casting error, when determining the position of rolling bearing, a distance Δ from inner wall of box should be taken, take Δ = 10 mm, the width of low speed pinion b3=85mm, then: At this point, the diameter and length of each section of the shaft have been preliminarily determined. Shaft section 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Diameter / mm 22 27 30 36 53.134 36 30 Length/ mm 52 65 28 105.5 55 8 28 3. Stress analysis of the shaft The circumferential force on a high speed pinion Ft1 (d1 is the diameter of the indexing circle of the high-speed pinion) Radial force on a high speed pinion Fr1 Axial force on a high speed pinion Fa1 According to 7206AC angular contact manual, pressure center a=18.7mm Distance between the center point of the first shaft and the bearing pressure center l1: Distance from bearing pressure center to gear fulcrum l2: Distance between gear midpoint and bearing pressure center l3: (1) Calculate the supporting reaction of the shaft Horizontal support reaction: Vertical support reaction: (2) Calculate the bending moment of the shaft, and draw the bending moment diagram The horizontal bending moment at section C: The vertical bending moment at section C: Bending moment diagram of horizontal plane (fig.b) and vertical plane (fig.c). The resultant bending moment at section C: (3) Make composite bending moment diagram (figure d) Make torque diagram (figure e) Figure 7-2 High - speed shaft force and bending moment diagram 4. Check the strength of the shaft Because the bending moment on the left side of C is large and the action has torque, the left side of C is the dangerous section. The bending section coefficient W: The torsion cross section coefficient WT: The maximum bending stress: The shear stress: Check and calculate according to the strength of bending and torsion. For the shaft of one-way drive, torque is processed according to pulsating cycle. Therefore, the reduced coefficient is adopted α=0.6, then the equivalent stress is (10) Check the table, get 40Cr(tempering and tempering) treatment, and the limit of tensile strength σB=735MPa; Then the allowable bending stress of the axis [σ-1b]=60MPa, σca<[σ-1b], so the strength is good. 7.2 Calculation of jack shaft design 1. Select the material on the shaft, and determine the allowable stress Because the reducer is a general machine, there is no special requirements, so choose 45 (quenched and tempered), the hardness: 240HBS. Referring table 15-1, take σb=640MPa, σ-1b=60MPa 2. According to the initial torsion strength, the minimum diameter of the shaft estimated Refer to table 15-3, take A0=112, then: Since the minimum diameter of the shaft section is all rolling bearings, the standard diameter d=35mm is selected. Figure 7-3 Diagram of intermediate shaft (1) Initial selection of rolling bearing. The minimum diameters of the intermediate shaft are d12 and d56 for mounting the rolling bearing. Because the bearing is subject to both radial and axial forces, angular contact bearing is chosen. Referring to the requirement of working and according to dmin = 31.08 mm, from the bearing catalogue, selsct angular contact bearing 7207AC, its size: d×D×B = 35×72×17mm, so d12 = d56 = 35 mm. (2) At the installation of the big gear, take the diameter of the shaft section d45 = 38mm; Positioning by oil baffle ring is taken between the right end of the gear and the right bearing. It is known that the width of the hub of the high-speed large gear wheel b2 = 50mm, in order to press gears reliably, this section should be slightly shorter than the width of the hub, then take l45 = 48 mm. Shaft shoulder positioning is adopted in the left end of the gear, the height of shaft shoulder h = (2~3)R. Refer to the table with trunnion d45 = 38 mm, take h = 5 mm, then the diameter of Collar point d34 = 48 mm. Collar width b≥1.4h, take l34 = 15 mm. (3) Left end rolling bearing adopts oil baffle ring for axial positioning. (4) Considering about material and machining economy, low speed pinion and shaft should be designed and manufactured separately. It is known that the hub width of the low-speed pinion is b3= 85mm, in order to make the end face of oil retaining ring press the gear reliably, this section should be slightly shorter than the width of the hub, so take l23 = 83 mm，d23=38mm。 (5) Take the distance between the low-speed pinion and the inner wall of the boxΔ1 =10 mm, the distance between the high speed big gear and the inner wall of the box Δ2 =12.5 mm, the distance between high speed main gear and low speed pinionΔ3=15mm. Consider housing casting error, when determining the position of rolling bearing, should be from a distance Δ casing wall, take Δ = 10 mm, then: At this point, the diameter and length of each section of the shaft have been preliminarily determined. Shaft section 1 2 3 4 5 Diameter/ mm 35 38 48 38 35 Length/ mm 39 83 15 48 41.5 3. Force analysis of the shaft The circumferential force on a high speed pinion Ft2 (d2 is the diameter of the indexing circle of the high-speed pinion) Radial force on a high speed pinion Fr2 Axial force on a high speed pinion Fa2 Circumferential force on the low-speed pinion Ft3 (d3 is the dividing circle diameter of the low-speed pinion) Radial force on a low speed pinion The axial force on a low speed pinion According to 7207AC angular contact manual, pressure center a=21mm Distance from bearing pressure center to middle point of low-speed pinion: Distance from the midpoint of the low-speed pinion to that of the high-speed large gear: Distance from the middle point of the high-speed large gear to the bearing pressure center: (1) Calculate the reaction force of the shaft Horizontal support reaction Vertical support reaction (2) Calculate the bending moment of the shaft and draw the bending moment diagram The horizontal bending moment at section B The horizontal bending moment at section C The vertical bending moment at section C The vertical bending moment at section B Draw the bending moment diagram of horizontal plane (fig.b) and vertical plane (fig.c) The resultant bending moment at section B The synthetic bending moment of section C: Make composite bending moment diagram (figure d) Make torque diagram (figure e) Figure 7-4 force and bending moment of jack shaft 4. Check the strength of the shaft Because the bending moment on the left side of B is large and the action has torque, the left side of B is the dangerous section. Its bending section coefficient: Its torsion cross section coefficient: The maximum bending stress: Its shear stress: Check and calculate according to the strength of bending and torsion. For the shaft of one-way drive, torque is processed according to pulsating cycle. Therefore, the reduced coefficient is adopted α=0.6, then the equivalent stress is Check the table, get 40Cr(tempering and tempering) treatment, and the limit of tensile strength σB=640MPa; Then the allowable bending stress of the axis [σ-1b]=60MPa, σca<[σ-1b], so the strength is good. 7.3 Calculation of low speed shaft 1. Select the material on the shaft, and determine the allowable stress Because the reducer is a general machine, there is no special requirements, so choose 45 (quenched and tempered), the hardness: 240HBS. Referring table 15-1, take σb=640MPa, σ-1b=60MPa 2. According to the initial torsion strength, the minimum diameter of the shaft estimated Refer to table 15-3, take A0=112, then: Shaft end has 1 keyway, so increase shaft diameter by 7% According to the table, the diameter of the standard axle hole is 50mm, so d=50 Figure 7-5 Schematic diagram of low-speed shaft (1) The minimum diameter of the output shaft is obviously the diameter d1 of the shaft where the coupling is mounted. In order to make the selected shaft diameter d1 match the coupling aperture, it is necessary to select the type of coupling.The calculated torque of the coupling Tca = KA×T, refer to the table, consider about stability, then take KA = 1.3，thus: According to the condition that the torque Tca of the coupling should be less than the nominal torque of the coupling, check the standard GB t4323-2002 or the design manual, choose LX4 type coupling. The aperture of the semi-coupling is 50mm, the hub hole length of fitness of the semi-coupling and the shaft is 112mm. Choose ordinary flat bond, A type bond, b×h = 14×9mm(GB T 1096-2003), length of bond L=100mm. (2) Initial selection of rolling bearing. Because the bearing is subject to both radial and axial forces, angular contact bearing is chosen. According to work requirements and d23 = 55mm, angular contact bearing 7212AC is selected from the bearing product catalog, its size: d×D×B = 60×110×22mm, so d34 = d78 = 60 mm. Positioning of bearing oil retaining ring. According to the manual, the positioning shaft shoulder height of type 7212AC bearing is h = 4.5mm, so d45 = 69mm (3) Take the diameter of the shaft section where the gear is mounted d67 = 63 mm；The width of the low-speed large gear hub is known as b4 = 80 mm，in order to make the end face of the oil retaining ring press the gear reliably, this shaft segment should be slightly shorter than the width of the hub, so l67 = 78mm. The left end of the gear is fixed by the shaft shoulder. The height of shaft shoulder h = (2~3)R，The diameter of the shaft d67 = 63 mm, so take h = 10 mm, then the diameter at the collar d56 = 83 mm, take l56=10mm. (4) Thickness of bearing end cover e=10, the thickness of the gasket Δt=2. According to the ease of mounting and dismounting of the bearing end cover, ensure that the outer end face of the bearing end cover has a certain distance from the end face of the coupling K=24, screw C1=22mm, C2=20mm, box seat wall thickness δ=8mm, then: (5) Assume the distance between low level main gear and inner box wall Δ 2 = 12.5 mm, the distance between high speed main gear and low speed pinion Δ 3 = 15 mm distance. Consider housing casting error, when determining the position of rolling bearing, should be from a distance Δ casing wall, assume Δ = 10 mm, then: At this point, the diameter and length of each section of the shaft have been preliminarily determined. Shaft section 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Diameter 50 55 60 69 83 63 60 Length 112 59 44.5 57.5 10 78 46.5 3. Force analysis of the shaft Circumferential force on the low-speed big gear (d4 is the dividing circle diameter of the low-speed big gear) The radial force on a large low speed gear The axial force exerted on a large low-speed gear Refer to the manual with 7212AC angular contaction, know pressure center a=30.8mm (1)Calculate the supporting reaction of the shaft Horizontal support reaction Vertical support reaction (2) Calculate the bending moment of the shaft and draw the bending moment diagram The horizontal bending moment at section C The vertical bending moment at section C Draw the bending moment diagram of horizontal plane (fig.b) and vertical plane (fig.c) The resultant bending moment at section C (3) Make composite bending moment diagram (figure d) Make torque diagram (figure e) Figure 7-6 Diagram of force and bending moment of low speed shaft 4. Check the strength of the shaft Because the bending moment on the left side of C is large and the action has torque, the left side of C is the dangerous section Its bending section coefficient: Its torsion cross section coefficient: The maximum bending stress: Its shear stress: Check and calculate according to the strength of bending and torsion. For the shaft of one-way drive, torque is processed according to pulsating cycle. So the reduced coefficient =0.6, then the equivalent stress: Refer to the the table, get 45(tempering) treatment, tensile strength limitσB=640MPa，then the allowable bending stress of the axis[σ-1b]=60MPa, σca<[σ-1b], so the strength is good. Chapter 8 Rolling bearing life check 8.1 Bearing check on high speed shaft Bearing code d(mm) D(mm) B(mm) Cr(kN) C0r(kN) 7206AC 30 62 16 22 14.2 Adopt 7206AC angular contact ball bearing, inner diameter d=30mm, outer diameter D=62mm, width B=16mm, Basic dynamic load rating Cr=22kN，Rated static load C0r=14.2kN. Life expectancy is Lh=48000h. According to the horizontal and vertical bearing reaction calculated previously, we can calculate the resultant bearing reaction： Axial force Fae=435N According to the calculations, bearing 1 is "pressed", while bearing 2 is “relaxing”. Refer to the table, X1=0.41，Y1=0.87，X2=1，Y2=0 Refer to the table, ft=1，fp=1 Then, take the bigger one into Bearing life is sufficient. 8.2 Bearing check on the jack shaft Bearing code d(mm) D(mm) B(mm) Cr(kN) C0r(kN) 7207AC 35 72 17 29 19.2 Adopt 7207AC angular contact ball bearing, inner diameter d=35mm, outer diameter D=72mm, width B=17mm, Basic dynamic load ratingCr=29kN, Rated static load C0r=19.2kN Life expectancy is Lh=48000h. According to the horizontal and vertical bearing reaction calculated previously, we can calculate the resultant bearing reaction： Axial force Fae=775N According to the calculations, bearing 1 is "pressed", while bearing 2 is “relaxing”. Refer to the table, X1=0.41，Y1=0.87，X2=1，Y2=0 Refer to the table, ft=1，fp=1 Then, take the bigger one into Bearing life is sufficient. 8.3 Bearing check on the low speed shaft Bearring code d(mm) D(mm) B(mm) Cr(kN) C0r(kN) 7212AC 60 110 22 58.2 46.2 Adopt 7212AC angular contact ball bearing, inner diameter d=60mm, outer diameter D=110mm, width B=22mm, Basic dynamic load rating Cr=58.2kN，Rated static load C0r=46.2kN Life expectancy is Lh=48000h。 According to the horizontal and vertical bearing reaction calculated previously, we can calculate the resultant bearing reaction： Axial force Fae=1145N According to the calculations, bearing 1 is "pressed", while bearing 2 is “relaxing”. Refer to the table, X1=0.41，Y1=0.87，X2=1，Y2=0 Refer to the table, ft=1，fp=1 Then, take the bigger one into Bearing life is sufficient. Chapter 9 Key connection design calculation 9.1 Calculation check of coupling key connection The chosen type of key is A-type: 6×6（GB/T 1096-2003） Working length of key: l=L-b=40-6=34mm Contact height of the hub keyway: k=h/2=3mm According to the material of the coupling which is 45 and the stability of loading, we can get [σp]=120MPa, then it’s compression strength is It meets the strength requirement. 9.2 Calculation check of low speed pinion’s key connection The chosen type of key is A-type: 10×8（GB/T 1096-2003） Working length of key: l=L-b=70-10=60mm Contact height of the hub keyway: k=h/2=4mm According to the material of the low speed pinion which is 40Cr and the stability of loading, we can get [σp]=120MPa, then it’s compression strength is It meets the strength requirement. 9.3 Calculation check of high speed main gear’s key connection The chosen type of key is A-type: 10×8（GB/T 1096-2003） Working length of key: l=L-b=36-10=26mm Contact height of the hub keyway: k=h/2=4mm According to the material of the high speed main gear which is 45 and the stability of loading, we can get [σp]=120MPa, then it’s compression strength is It meets the strength requirement. 9.4 Calculation check of low speed main gear’s key connection The chosen type of key is A-type: 18×11（GB/T 1096-2003） Working length of key: l=L-b=63-18=45mm Contact height of the hub keyway: k=h/2=5.5mm According to the material of the low speed main gear which is 45 and the stability of loading, we can get [σp]=120MPa, then it’s compression strength is It meets the strength requirement. Chapter 10 Coupling selection 10.1 Coupling on the high speed shaft （1）Calculate the load on the coupling Refer to the table, the load coefficient of the coupling is KA=1.3 Then calculate the torque is Tc=KA×T=1.3×48.84=63.5N•m （2）Select the type of coupling Primary coupling model is LX3 elastic pin coupling (GB/ t4323-2002). Refer to the table, Nominal torque Tn=1250N•m, Allowable speed[n]=4700r/min, thus: Tc=63.5N•mdesign, because the relative speed of sealing interface is small, contact seal is adopted. The velocity between the input shaft and the bearing cover is V <3m/s, the velocity between the output shaft and the bearing cover is also V 1.2δ 12mm Distance between gear face and inner box wall △2 >δ 12.5mm Case cover and seat rib thickness m1、m m1≈0.85×δ1、m≈0.85×δ 8mm、8mm Outer diameter of high speed bearing end cap D1 D+(5～5.5)d3；D--bearing outer diameter 102mm Outer diameter of end cover of jack bearing D2 D+(5～5.5)d3；D--bearing outer diameter 112mm Outer diameter of low speed bearing end cap D3 D+(5～5.5)d3；D--bearing outer diameter 150mm Chapter 14 Drawing of structure analysis of reduce 14.1 Drawing of assembly 14.2 Housing 14.3 Drawing of gears High speed main gear Low speed pinion 14.4 Drawing of shafts High speed shaft Jack speed shaft Low speed shaft Chapter 15 Conclusion 15.1 Summary After hard work, I finally finished the mechanical design course. In the process of this operation, I encountered many difficulties. The repeated calculation and the design scheme modification exposed my lack of knowledge and experience in this aspect in the early stage, and I learned the lesson of blind calculation. As for drawing assembly drawing and part drawing, due to sufficient preliminary calculation, the whole process took less than three days. During this period, I also received a lot of help from my classmates and teachers. Here I would like to express my most sincere thanks to them. Although the time of this assignment is long and the process is tortuous, for me, the biggest gain is the method and ability. The ability to analyze and solve problems. In the whole process, I found that what students like us most lack is experience, no perceptual knowledge, empty theoretical knowledge, and some things may be out of touch with the reality. In general, I think doing this type of homework is of great help to us. It requires us to systematically connect the relevant knowledge we have learned, expose our shortcomings and make improvements. Sometimes a person's power is limited, the wisdom of all people, I believe our work will be more perfect! Due to the limited time, there are many shortcomings in this design, such as the huge box structure and large weight. The gear calculation is not accurate enough and other defects, I believe, through this practice, I can avoid a lot of unnecessary work in the future design, have the ability to design a more compact structure, transmission more stable and accurate equipment. 15.2 Job description of team members Team leader: 陈旭颖 Finish the designation and calculation of transmission device, motor, dynamic parameters, rolling bearings, keys and couplings. Draw the CAD of assembly drawing and reducer housing drawing. Write the design specification. Team members: 方琢 Finish the designation and calculation of high speed gear, jack gear and low speed gear. Draw the CAD of high speed gear, jack gear and low speed gear. 李成雍 Finish the designation and calculation of high speed shaft, intermediate shaft and low speed shaft. Draw the CAD of high speed shaft, intermediate shaft and low speed shaft. Reference [1] Kunwoo Lee, Principles of CAD/CAM/CAE Systems, Pearson, Jan., 1999. [2] Chris McMahon and Jimmie Browne, CAD/CAM Principles, Practices and Manufacturing Management (2/e), Prentice Hall, July, 1999. [3] Andrew D. Dimarogonas, Machine Design - A CAD Approach, John Wiley & Sons, Dec. 2000. [4] E. Paul Degarmo, J. T. Black and Ronald A. Kohser, Materials and Processes in Manufacturing (11th edition), Wiley, Dec. 2011. [5] 李育锡. 机械设计课程设计（第⼆版）. 北京：⾼等教育出版社. in Chinese [6] 陈秀宁. 机械设计课程设计(第四版). 杭州：浙江⼤学出版社. 2010. in Chinese [7] 吴宗泽. 机械设计课程设计. 北京：⾼等教育出版社. 2007. in Chinese [8] 闻邦椿. 机械设计⼿册 1-6 卷(第五版). 北京：机械⼯业出版社. 2011. in Chinese Attachment 1.The drawing of assembly; 2.The drawing of reducer housing; 3.The drawing of pinion; 4.The drawing of main gear; 5.The drawing of low speed shaft; 6.The drawing of jack shaft; 7.The drawing of high speed shaft;

Preface xi Acknowledgements xvii 1 Image Processing 1 1.1 Basic Definitions 2 1.2 Image Formation 3 1.3 Image Processing Operations 7 1.4 Example Application 9 1.5 Real-Time Image Processing 11 1.6 Embedded Image Processing 12 1.7 Serial Processing 12 1.8 Parallelism 14 1.9 Hardware Image Processing Systems 18 2 Field Programmable Gate Arrays 21 2.1 Programmable Logic 21 2.1.1 FPGAs vs. ASICs 24 2.2 FPGAs and Image Processing 25 2.3 Inside an FPGA 26 2.3.1 Logic 27 2.3.2 Interconnect 28 2.3.3 Input and Output 29 2.3.4 Clocking 30 2.3.5 Configuration 31 2.3.6 Power Consumption 32 2.4 FPGA Families and Features 33 2.4.1 Xilinx 33 2.4.2 Altera 38 2.4.3 Lattice Semiconductor 44 2.4.4 Achronix 46 2.4.5 SiliconBlue 47 2.4.6 Tabula 47 2.4.7 Actel 48 2.4.8 Atmel 49 2.4.9 QuickLogic 50 2.4.10 MathStar 50 2.4.11 Cypress 51 2.5 Choosing an FPGA or Development Board 51 3 Languages 53 3.1 Hardware Description Languages 56 3.2 Software-Based Languages 61 3.2.1 Structural Approaches 63 3.2.2 Augmented Languages 64 3.2.3 Native Compilation Techniques 69 3.3 Visual Languages 72 3.3.1 Behavioural 73 3.3.2 Dataflow 73 3.3.3 Hybrid 74 3.4 Summary 77 4 Design Process 79 4.1 Problem Specification 79 4.2 Algorithm Development 81 4.2.1 Algorithm Development Process 82 4.2.2 Algorithm Structure 83 4.2.3 FPGA Development Issues 86 4.3 Architecture Selection 86 4.3.1 System Level Architecture 87 4.3.2 Computational Architecture 89 4.3.3 Partitioning between Hardware and Software 93 4.4 System Implementation 96 4.4.1 Mapping to FPGA Resources 97 4.4.2 Algorithm Mapping Issues 100 4.4.3 Design Flow 101 4.5 Designing for Tuning and Debugging 102 4.5.1 Algorithm Tuning 102 4.5.2 System Debugging 104 5 Mapping Techniques 107 5.1 Timing Constraints 107 5.1.1 Low Level Pipelining 107 5.1.2 Process Synchronisation 110 5.1.3 Multiple Clock Domains 111 5.2 Memory Bandwidth Constraints 113 5.2.1 Memory Architectures 113 5.2.2 Caching 116 5.2.3 Row Buffering 117 5.2.4 Other Memory Structures 118 vi Contents 5.3 Resource Constraints 122 5.3.1 Resource Multiplexing 122 5.3.2 Resource Controllers 125 5.3.3 Reconfigurability 130 5.4 Computational Techniques 132 5.4.1 Number Systems 132 5.4.2 Lookup Tables 138 5.4.3 CORDIC 142 5.4.4 Approximations 150 5.4.5 Other Techniques 152 5.5 Summary 154 6 Point Operations 155 6.1 Point Operations on a Single Image 155 6.1.1 Contrast and Brightness Adjustment 155 6.1.2 Global Thresholding and Contouring 159 6.1.3 Lookup Table Implementation 162 6.2 Point Operations on Multiple Images 163 6.2.1 Image Averaging 164 6.2.2 Image Subtraction 166 6.2.3 Image Comparison 170 6.2.4 Intensity Scaling 171 6.2.5 Masking 173 6.3 Colour Image Processing 175 6.3.1 False Colouring 175 6.3.2 Colour Space Conversion 176 6.3.3 Colour Thresholding 192 6.3.4 Colour Correction 193 6.3.5 Colour Enhancement 197 6.4 Summary 197 7 Histogram Operations 199 7.1 Greyscale Histogram 199 7.1.1 Data Gathering 201 7.1.2 Histogram Equalisation 206 7.1.3 Automatic Exposure 210 7.1.4 Threshold Selection 211 7.1.5 Histogram Similarity 219 7.2 Multidimensional Histograms 219 7.2.1 Triangular Arrays 220 7.2.2 Multidimensional Statistics 222 7.2.3 Colour Segmentation 226 7.2.4 Colour Indexing 229 7.2.5 Texture Analysis 231 Contents vii 8 Local Filters 233 8.1 Caching 233 8.2 Linear Filters 239 8.2.1 Noise Smoothing 239 8.2.2 Edge Detection 241 8.2.3 Edge Enhancement 243 8.2.4 Linear Filter Techniques 243 8.3 Nonlinear Filters 248 8.3.1 Edge Orientation 250 8.3.2 Non-maximal Suppression 251 8.3.3 Zero-Crossing Detection 252 8.4 Rank Filters 252 8.4.1 Rank Filter Sorting Networks 255 8.4.2 Adaptive Histogram Equalisation 260 8.5 Colour Filters 261 8.6 Morphological Filters 264 8.6.1 Binary Morphology 264 8.6.2 Greyscale Morphology 269 8.6.3 Colour Morphology 270 8.7 Adaptive Thresholding 271 8.7.1 Error Diffusion 271 8.8 Summary 273 9 Geometric Transformations 275 9.1 Forward Mapping 276 9.1.1 Separable Mapping 277 9.2 Reverse Mapping 282 9.3 Interpolation 285 9.3.1 Bilinear Interpolation 286 9.3.2 Bicubic Interpolation 288 9.3.3 Splines 290 9.3.4 Interpolating Compressed Data 292 9.4 Mapping Optimisations 292 9.5 Image Registration 294 9.5.1 Feature-Based Methods 295 9.5.2 Area-Based Methods 299 9.5.3 Applications 305 10 Linear Transforms 309 10.1 Fourier Transform 310 10.1.1 Fast Fourier Transform 311 10.1.2 Filtering 318 10.1.3 Inverse Filtering 320 10.1.4 Interpolation 321 10.1.5 Registration 322 viii Contents 10.1.6 Feature Extraction 323 10.1.7 Goertzel’s Algorithm 324 10.2 Discrete Cosine Transform 325 10.3 Wavelet Transform 328 10.3.1 Filter Implementations 330 10.3.2 Applications of the Wavelet Transform 335 10.4 Image and Video Coding 336 11 Blob Detection and Labelling 343 11.1 Bounding Box 343 11.2 Run-Length Coding 346 11.3 Chain Coding 347 11.3.1 Sequential Implementation 347 11.3.2 Single Pass Algorithms 348 11.3.3 Feature Extraction 350 11.4 Connected Component Labelling 352 11.4.1 Random Access Algorithms 353 11.4.2 Multiple-Pass Algorithms 353 11.4.3 Two-Pass Algorithms 354 11.4.4 Single-Pass Algorithms 356 11.4.5 Multiple Input Labels 358 11.4.6 Further Optimisations 358 11.5 Distance Transform 359 11.5.1 Morphological Approaches 360 11.5.2 Chamfer Distance 360 11.5.3 Separable Transform 362 11.5.4 Applications 365 11.5.5 Geodesic Distance Transform 365 11.6 Watershed Transform 366 11.6.1 Flow Algorithms 366 11.6.2 Immersion Algorithms 367 11.6.3 Applications 369 11.7 Hough Transform 370 11.7.1 Line Hough Transform 371 11.7.2 Circle Hough Transform 373 11.7.3 Generalised Hough Transform 374 11.8 Summary 375 12 Interfacing 377 12.1 Camera Input 378 12.1.1 Camera Interface Standards 378 12.1.2 Deinterlacing 383 12.1.3 Global and Rolling Shutter Correction 384 12.1.4 Bayer Pattern Processing 384 Contents ix 12.2 Display Output 387 12.2.1 Display Driver 387 12.2.2 Display Content 390 12.3 Serial Communication 393 12.3.1 PS2 Interface 393 12.3.2 I2C 395 12.3.3 SPI 397 12.3.4 RS-232 397 12.3.5 USB 398 12.3.6 Ethernet 398 12.3.7 PCI Express 399 12.4 Memory 400 12.4.1 Static RAM 400 12.4.2 Dynamic RAM 401 12.4.3 Flash Memory 402 12.5 Summary 402 13 Testing, Tuning and Debugging 405 13.1 Design 405 13.1.1 Random Noise Sources 406 13.2 Implementation 409 13.2.1 Common Implementation Bugs 410 13.3 Tuning 412 13.4 Timing Closure 412 14 Example Applications 415 14.1 Coloured Region Tracking 415 14.2 Lens Distortion Correction 418 14.2.1 Characterising the Distortion 419 14.2.2 Correcting the Distortion 421 14.3 Foveal Sensor 424 14.3.1 Foveal Mapping 425 14.3.2 Using the Sensor 429 14.4 Range Imaging 429 14.4.1 Extending the Unambiguous Range 431 14.5 Real-Time Produce Grading 433 14.5.1 Software Algorithm 434 14.5.2 Hardware Implementation 436 14.6 Summary 439 References 441 Index 475 x Content

印刷电路板手册第六版 Part 1 Lead-Free Legislation Chapter 1. Legislation and Impact on Printed Circuits 1.3 1.1 Legislation Overview / 1.3 1.2 Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) / 1.3 1.3 Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) / 1.3 1.4 RoHS’ Impact on the Printed Circuit Industry / 1.6 1.5 Lead-Free perspecives / 1.10 1.6 Other Legislative Initiatives / 1.10 Part 2 Printed Circuit Technology Drivers Chapter 2. ELECTRONIC PACKAGING AND HIGH-DENSITY INTERCONNECTIVITY 2.3 2.1 Introduction / 2.3 2.2 Measuring the Interconnectivity Revolution (HDI) / 2.3 2.3 Hierarchy of Interconnections / 2.6 2.4 Factors Affecting Selection of Interconnections / 2.7 2.5 ICS and Packages / 2.10 2.6 Density Evaluations / 2.14 2.7 Methods to Increase PWB Density / 2.16 References / 2.21 Chapter 3. Semiconductor Packaging Technology 3.1 3.1 Introduction / 3.1 3.2 Single-Chip Packaging / 3.5 3.3 Multichip Packages / 3.15 3.4 Optical Interconnects / 3.18 3.5 High-Density/High-Performance Packaging Summary / 3.21 3.6 Roadmap Information / 3.21 References / 3.21 Chapter 4. Advanced Component Packaging 4.1 4.1 Introduction / 4.1 4.2 Lead-Free / 4.2 4.3 System-on-a-Chip (SOC) versus System-on-a-Package (SOP) / 4.3 v For more information about this title, click here 4.4 Multichip Modules / 4.5 4.5 Multichip Packaging / 4.6 4.6 Enabling Technologies / 4.10 4.7 Acknowledgment / 4.18 References / 4.18 Chapter 5. Types of Printed Wiring Boards 5.1 5.1 Introduction / 5.1 5.2 Classification of Printed Wiring Boards / 5.1 5.3 Organic and Nonorganic Substrates / 5.3 5.4 Graphical and Discrete-Wire Boards / 5.3 5.5 Rigid and Flexible Boards / 5.5 5.6 Graphically Produced Boards / 5.6 5.7 Molded Interconnection Devices / 5.10 5.8 Plated-Through-Hole (PTH) Technologies / 5.10 5.9 Summary / 5.13 References / 5.14 Part 3 Materials Chapter 6. Introduction to Base Materials 6.3 6.1 Introduction / 6.1 6.2 Grades and Specifications / 6.3 6.3 Properties Used to Classify Base Materials / 6.9 6.4 Types of FR-4 / 6.13 6.5 Laminate Identification Scheme / 6.14 6.6 Prepreg Identification Scheme / 6.18 6.7 Laminate and Prepreg Manufacturing Processes / 6.18 References / 6.24 Chapter 7. Base Material Components 7.1 7.1 Introduction / 7.1 7.2 Epoxy Resin Systems / 7.1 7.3 Other Resin Systems / 7.5 7.4 Additives / 7.7 7.5 Reinforcements / 7.12 7.6 Conductive Materials / 7.18 References / 7.25 Chapter 8. Properties of Base Materials 8.1 8.1 Introduction / 8.1 8.2 Thermal, Physical, and Mechanical Properties / 8.1 8.3 Electrical Properties / 8.13 References / 8.16 Chapter 9. Base Materials Performance Issues 9.1 9.1 Introduction / 9.1 9.2 Methods of Increasing Circuit Density / 9.2 9.3 Copper foil / 9.2 9.4 Laminate Constructions / 9.7 9.5 Prepreg Options and Yield-Per-Ply Values / 9.9 vi CONTENTS 9.6 Dimensional Stability / 9.10 9.7 High-Density Interconnect/Microvia Materials / 9.13 9.8 CAF Growth / 9.15 9.9 Electrical Performance / 9.22 References / 9.33 Chapter 10. The Impact of Lead-Free Assembly on Base Materials 10.1 10.1 Introduction / 10.1 10.2 RoHS Basics / 10.1 10.3 Base Material Compatibility Issues / 10.2 10.4 The Impact of Lead-Free Assembly on Base Material Components / 10.4 10.5 Critical Base Material Properties / 10.4 10.6 Impact on Printed Circuit Reliability and Material Selection / 10.18 10.7 Summary / 10.21 References / 10.22 Chapter 11. Selecting Base Materials for Lead-Free Assembly Applications 11.1 11.1 Introduction / 11.1 11.2 Pcb fabrication and Assembly Interactions / 11.1 11.3 Selecting the Right Base Material for Specific Application / 11.6 11.4 Example Application of this Tool / 11.14 11.5 Discussion of the Range of Peak Temperatures for Lead-Free Assembly / 11.15 11.6 Lead-Free Applications and Ipc-4101 Specification Sheets / 11.15 11.7 Additional Base material Options for Lead-Free Applications / 11.16 11.8 Summary / 11.17 References / 11.18 Chapter 12. Laminate Qualification and Testing 12.1 12.1 Introduction / 12.1 12.2 Industry Standards / 12.2 12.3 Laminate Test Strategy / 12.4 12.4 Initial Tests / 12.5 12.5 Full Material Characterization / 12.9 12.6 Characterization Test Plan / 12.22 12.7 Manufacturability in the Shop / 12.23 Part 4 Engineering and Design Chapter 13. Physical Characteristics of the PCB 13.3 13.1 Classes of PCB Designs / 13.3 13.2 Types of PCBs or Packages for Electronic Circuits / 13.9 13.3 Methods of Attaching Components / 13.14 13.4 Component Package Types / 13.15 13.5 Materials Choices / 13.18 13.6 Fabrication Methods / 13.22 13.7 Choosing a Package Type and Fabrication Vendor / 13.24 Chapter 14. The PCB Design Process 14.1 14.1 Objective of the PCB Design Process / 14.1 14.2 Design Processes / 14.1 CONTENTS vii 14.3 Design Tools / 14.6 14.4 Selecting a Set of Design Tools / 14.10 14.5 Interfacing Cae, Cad, and CAMTools to Each Other / 14.11 14.6 Inputs to the Design Process / 14.11 Chapter 15. Electrical and Mechanical Design Parameters 15.1 15.1 Printed Circuit Design Requirements / 15.1 15.2 Introduction to Electrical Signal Integrity / 15.1 15.3 Introduction to Electromagnetic Compatibility / 15.3 15.4 Noise Budget / 15.4 15.5 Designing for Signal Integrity and Electromagnetic Compatibility / 15.4 15.6 Mechanical Design Requirements / 15.9 References / 15.17 Chapter 16. Current Carrying Capacity in Printed Circuits 16.1 16.1 Introduction / 16.1 16.2 Conductor (Trace) Sizing Charts / 16.1 16.3 Current Carrying Capacity / 16.2 16.4 Charts / 16.6 16.5 Baseline Charts / 16.10 16.6 Odd-Shaped Geometries and the “Swiss Cheese” Effect / 16.19 16.7 Copper Thickness / 16.20 References / 16.21 Chapter 17. PCB Design for Thermal Performance 17.1 17.1 Introduction / 17.1 17.2 The PCB as a Heat Sink Soldered to the Component / 17.2 17.3 Optimizing the PCB for Thermal Performance / 17.3 17.4 Conducting Heat to the Chassis / 17.12 17.5 PCB Requirements for High-Power Heat Sink Attach / 17.14 17.6 Modeling the Thermal Performance of the PCB / 17.15 References / 17.18 Chapter 18. Information Formating and Exchange 18.1 18.1 Introduction to Data Exchange / 18.1 18.2 The Data Exchange Process / 18.3 18.3 Data Exchange Formats / 18.9 18.4 Drivers for Evolution / 18.22 18.5 Acknowledgment / 18.23 References / 18.23 Chapter 19. Planning for Design, Fabrication, and Assembly 19.1 19.1 Introduction / 19.1 19.2 General Considerations / 19.3 19.3 New Product Design / 19.4 19.4 Layout Trade-off Planning / 19.10 19.5 PWB Fabrication Trade-off Planning / 19.17 19.6 Assembly Trade-Off Planning / 19.24 References / 19.27 viii CONTENTS Chapter 20. Manufacturing Information, Documentation, and Transfer Including CAM Tooling for Fab and Assembly 20.1 20.1 Introduction / 20.1 20.2 Manufacturing Information / 20.2 20.3 Initial Design Review / 20.7 20.4 Design Input / 20.15 20.5 Design Analysis and Review / 20.19 20.6 The CAM-Tooling Process / 20.19 20.7 Additional Processes / 20.31 20.8 Acknowledgment / 20.32 Chapter 21. Embedded Components 21.1 21.1 Introduction / 21.1 21.2 Definitions and Example / 21.1 21.3 Applications and Trade-Offs / 21.2 21.4 Designing for Embedded Component Applications / 21.3 21.5 Materials / 21.6 21.6 Material Supply Types / 21.9 Part 5 High Density Interconnection Chapter 22. Introduction to High-Density Interconnection (HDI) Technology 22.3 22.1 Introduction / 22.3 22.2 Definitions / 22.3 22.3 HDI Structures / 22.7 22.4 Design / 22.11 22.5 Dielectric Materials and Coating Methods / 22.13 22.6 HDI Manufacturing Processes / 22.26 References / 22.34 Bibliography-Additional Reading / 22.35 Chapter 23. Advanced High-Density Interconnection (HDI) Technologies 23.1 23.1 Introduction / 23.1 23.2 Definitions of HDI Process Factors / 23.1 23.3 HDI Fabrication Processes / 23.3 23.4 Next-Generation HDI Processes / 23.33 References 23.37 Part 6 Fabrication Chapter 24. Drilling Processes 24.3 24.1 Introduction / 24.3 24.2 Materials / 24.4 24.3 Machines / 24.11 24.4 Methods / 24.15 24.5 Hole Quality / 24.18 24.6 Postdrilling Inspection / 24.20 24.7 Drilling Cost Per Hole / 24.20 CONTENTS ix Chapter 25. Precision Interconnect Drilling 25.1 25.1 Introduction / 25.1 25.2 Factors Affecting High-Density Drilling / 25.1 25.3 Laser versus Mechanical / 25.2 25.4 Factors Affecting High-Density Drilling / 25.5 25.5 Depth-Controlled Drilling Methods / 25.10 25.6 High-Aspect-Ratio Drilling / 25.10 25.7 Innerlayer Inspection of Multilayer Boards / 25.13 Chapter 26. Imaging 26.1 26.1 Introduction / 26.1 26.2 Photosensitive Materials / 26.2 26.3 Dry-Film Resists / 26.4 26.4 Liquid Photoresists / 26.7 26.5 Electrophoretic Depositable Photoresists / 26.8 26.6 Resist Processing / 26.8 26.7 Design for Manufacturing / 26.27 References / 26.29 Chapter 27. Multilayer Materials and Processing 27.1 27.1 Introduction / 27.1 27.2 Printed Wiring Board Materials / 27.2 27.3 Multilayer Construction Types / 27.16 27.4 ML-PWB Processing and Flows / 27.37 27.5 Lamination Process / 27.51 27.6 Lamination Process Control and Troubleshooting / 27.59 27.7 Lamination Overview / 27.63 27.8 ML-PWB Summary / 27.63 References / 27.63 Chapter 28. Preparing Boards for Plating 28.1 28.1 Introduction / 28.1 28.2 Process Decisions / 28.1 28.3 Process Feedwater / 28.3 28.4 Multilayer PTH Preprocessing / 28.4 28.5 Electroless Copper / 28.8 28.6 Acknowledgment / 28.11 References / 28.11 Chapter 29. Electroplating 29.1 29.1 Introduction / 29.1 29.2 Electroplating Basics / 29.1 29.3 High-Aspect Ratio Hole and Microvia Plating / 29.2 29.4 Horizontal Electroplating / 29.4 29.5 Copper Electroplating General Issues / 29.6 29.6 Acid Copper Sulfate Solutions and Operation / 29.14 29.7 Solder (Tin-Lead) Electroplating / 29.19 29.8 Tin Electroplating / 29.21 29.9 Nickel Electroplating / 29.23 29.10 Gold Electroplating / 29.25 29.11 Platinum Metals / 29.28 29.12 Silver Electroplating / 29.29 x CONTENTS 29.13 Laboratory Process control / 29.29 29.14 Acknowledgment / 29.31 References / 29.31 Chapter 30. Direct Plating 30.1 30.1 Direct Metallization Technology / 30.1 References / 30.11 Chapter 31. PWB Manufacture Using Fully Electroless Copper 31.1 31.1 Fully Electroless Plating / 31.1 31.2 The Additive Process and its Variations / 31.2 31.3 Pattern-Plating Additive / 31.2 31.4 Panel-Plate Additive / 31.7 31.5 Partly Additive / 31.8 31.6 Chemistry of Electroless Plating / 31.9 31.7 Fully Electroless Plating Issues / 31.12 References / 31.14 Chapter 32. Printed Circuit Board Surface Finishes 32.1 32.1 Introduction / 32.1 32.2 Alternative Finishes / 32.3 32.3 Hot Air Solder Level (Hasl or Hal) / 32.4 32.4 Electroless Nickel Immersion Gold (ENIG) / 32.6 32.5 Organic Solderability Preservative (OSP) / 32.8 32.6 Immersion Silver / 32.10 32.7 Immersion Tin / 32.11 32.8 Other Surface Finishes / 32.13 32.9 Assembly Compatibility / 32.14 32.10 Reliability Test Methods / 32.17 32.11 Special Topics / 32.18 32.12 Failure Modes / 32.19 32.13 Comparing Surface Finish Properties / 32.23 References / 32.23 Chapter 33. Solder Mask 33.1 33.1 Introduction / 33.1 33.2 Trends and Challenges for Solder Mask / 33.2 33.3 Types of Solder Mask / 33.3 33.4 Solder Mask Selection / 33.4 33.5 Solder Mask Application and Processing / 33.9 33.6 VIA Protection / 33.18 33.7 Solder Mask Final Properties / 33.19 33.8 Legend and Marking (Nomenclature) / 33.19 Chapter 34. Etching Process and Technologies 34.1 34.1 Introduction / 34.1 34.2 General Etching Considerations and Procedures / 34.2 34.3 Resist Removal / 34.4 34.4 Etching Solutions / 34.6 34.5 Other Materials for Board Construction / 34.18 34.6 Metals Other than Copper / 34.19 34.7 Basics of Etched Line Formation / 34.20 CONTENTS xi 34.8 Equipment and Techniques / 34.26 References / 34.29 Chapter 35. Machining and Routing 35.1 35.1 Introduction / 35.1 35.2 Punching Holes (Piercing) / 35.1 35.3 Blanking, Shearing, and Cutting of Copper-Clad Laminates / 35.3 35.4 Routing / 35.6 35.5 Scoring / 35.13 35.6 Acknowledgment / 35.15 Part 7 Bare Board Test Chapter 36. Bare Board Test Objectives and Definitions 36.3 36.1 Introduction / 36.3 36.2 The Impact of HDI / 36.3 36.3 Why Test? / 36.4 36.4 Circuit Board Faults / 36.6 Chapter 37. Bare Board Test Methods 37.1 37.1 Introduction / 37.1 37.2 Nonelectrical Testing Methods / 37.1 37.3 Basic Electrical Testing Methods / 37.2 37.4 Specialized Electrical Testing Methods / 37.9 37.5 Data and Fixture Preparation / 37.13 37.6 Combined Testing Methods / 37.20 Chapter 38. Bare Board Test Equipment 38.1 38.1 Introduction / 38.1 38.2 System Alternatives / 38.1 38.3 Universal Grid Systems / 38.3 38.4 Flying-Probe/Moving-Probe Test Systems / 38.17 38.5 Verification and Repair / 38.21 38.6 Test Department Planning and Management / 38.22 Chapter 39. HDI Bare Board Special Testing Methods 39.1 39.1 Introduction / 39.1 39.2 Fine-Pitch Tilt-Pin Fixtures / 39.2 39.3 Bending Beam Fixtures / 39.3 39.4 Flying Probe / 39.3 39.5 Coupled Plate / 39.3 39.6 Shorting Plate / 39.4 39.7 Conductive Rubber Fixtures / 39.5 39.8 Optical Inspection / 39.5 39.9 Noncontact Test Methods / 39.5 39.10 Combinational Test Methods / 39.7 xii CONTENTS Part 8 Assembly Chapter 40. Assembly Processes 40.3 40.1 Introduction / 40.3 40.2 Through-Hole Technology / 40.5 40.3 Surface-Mount Technology / 40.16 40.4 Odd-Form Component Assembly / 40.42 40.5 Process Control / 40.48 40.6 Process Equipment Selection / 40.54 40.7 Repair and Rework / 40.57 40.8 Conformal Coating, Encapsulation, and Underfill Materials / 40.64 40.9 Acknowledgment / 40.66 Chapter 41. Conformal Coating 41.1 41.1 Introduction / 41.1 41.2 Types of Conformal Coatings / 41.3 41.3 Product Preparation / 41.6 41.4 Application Processes / 41.7 41.5 Cure, Inspection, and Finishing / 41.11 41.6 Repair Methods / 41.13 41.7 Design for Conformal Coating / 41.14 References / 41.17 Part 9 Solderability Technology Chapter 42. Solderability: Incoming Inspection and Wet Balance Technique 42.3 42.1 Introduction / 42.3 42.2 Solderability / 42.4 42.3 Solderability Testing—a Scientific Approach / 42.8 42.4 The Influence of Temperature on Test Results / 42.13 42.5 Interpreting the Results:Wetting Balance Solderability Testing / 42.14 42.6 Globule Testing / 42.15 42.7 PCB Surface Finishes and Solderability Testing / 42.16 42.8 Component Solderability / 42.22 Chapter 43. Fluxes and Cleaning 43.1 43.1 Introduction / 43.1 43.2 Assembly Process / 43.2 43.3 Surface Finishes / 43.3 43.4 Soldering Flux / 43.5 43.5 Flux Form Versus Soldering Process / 43.6 43.6 Rosin Flux / 43.7 43.7 Water-Soluble Flux / 43.8 43.8 Low Solids Flux / 43.9 43.9 Cleaning Issues / 43.10 43.10 Summary / 43.12 References / 43.12 CONTENTS xiii Part 10 Solder Materials and Processes Chapter 44. Soldering Fundamentals 44.3 44.1 Introduction / 44.3 44.2 Elements of a Solder Joint / 44.4 44.3 The Solder Connection to the Circuit Board / 44.4 44.4 The solder Connection to the Electrical Component / 44.5 44.5 Common Metal-Joining Methods / 44.5 44.6 Solder Overview / 44.9 44.7 Soldering Basics / 44.9 Chapter 45. Soldering Materials and Metallurgy 45.1 45.1 Introduction / 45.1 45.2 Solders / 45.2 45.3 Solder Alloys and Corrosion / 45.4 45.4 PB-Free Solders: Search for Alternatives and Implications / 45.5 45.5 PB-Free Elemental Alloy Candidates / 45.5 45.6 Board Surface Finishes / 45.11 References / 45.19 Chapter 46. Solder Fluxes 46.1 46.1 Introduction to Fluxes / 46.1 46.2 Flux Activity and Attributes / 46.2 46.3 Flux: Ideal Versus Reality / 46.3 46.4 Flux Types / 46.4 46.5 Water-Clean (Aqueous) Fluxes / 46.4 46.6 No-Clean Flux / 46.7 46.7 Other Fluxing Caveats / 46.9 46.8 Soldering Atmospheres / 46.12 References / 46.15 Chapter 47. Soldering Techniques 47.1 47.1 Introduction / 47.1 47.2 Mass Soldering Methods / 47.1 47.3 Oven Reflow Soldering / 47.1 47.4 Wave Soldering / 47.28 47.5 Wave Solder Defects / 47.39 47.6 Vapor-Phase Reflow Soldering / 47.42 47.7 Laser Reflow Soldering / 47.43 47.8 Tooling and the Need for Coplanarity and Intimate Contact / 47.50 47.9 Additional Information Sources / 47.53 47.10 Hot-Bar Soldering / 47.53 47.11 Hot-Gas Soldering / 47.58 47.12 Ultrasonic Soldering / 47.59 References / 47.61 Chapter 48. Soldering Repair and Rework 48.1 48.1 Introduction / 48.1 48.2 Hot-Gas Repair / 48.1 xiv CONTENTS 48.3 Manual Solder Fountain / 48.5 48.4 Automated Solder Fountain / 48.6 48.5 Laser / 48.6 48.6 Considerations for Repair / 48.6 Reference / 48.7 Part 11 Nonsolder Interconnection Chapter 49. Press-Fit Interconnection 49.3 49.1 Introduction / 49.3 49.2 The Rise of Press-Fit Technology / 49.3 49.3 Compliant Pin Configurations / 49.4 49.4 Press-Fit Considerations / 49.6 49.5 Press-Fit Pin Materials / 49.7 49.6 Surface Finishes and Effects / 49.8 49.7 Equipment / 49.10 49.8 Assembly Process / 49.11 49.9 Press Routines / 49.12 49.10 PWB Design and Board Procurement Tips / 49.14 49.11 Press-Fit Process Tips / 49.15 49.12 Inspection and Testing / 49.16 49.13 Soldering and Press-Fit Pins / 49.17 References / 49.17 Chapter 50. Land Grid Array Interconnect 50.1 50.1 Introduction / 50.1 50.2 LGA and the Environment / 50.1 50.3 Elements of the LGA System / 50.2 50.4 Assembly / 50.5 50.5 Printed Circuit Assembly (PCA) Rework / 50.7 50.6 Design Guidelines / 50.8 Reference / 50.8 Part 12 Quality Chapter 51. Acceptability and Quality of Fabricated Boards 51.3 51.1 Introduction / 51.3 51.2 Specific Quality and Acceptability Criteria by PCB Type / 51.4 51.3 Methods for Verification of Acceptability / 51.6 51.4 Inspection Lot Formation / 51.7 51.5 Inspections Categories / 51.8 51.6 Acceptability and Quality After Simulated Solder Cycle(s) / 51.8 51.7 Nonconforming PCBS and Material Review Board (MRB) Function / 51.10 51.8 The Cost of the Assembled PCB / 51.11 51.9 How to Develop Acceptability and Quality Criteria / 51.11 51.10 Class of Service / 51.13 51.11 Inspection Criteria / 51.13 51.12 Reliability Inspection Using Accelerated Environmental Exposure / 51.32 CONTENTS xv Chapter 52. Acceptability of Printed Circuit Board Assemblies 52.1 52.1 Understanding Customer Requirements / 52.1 52.2 Handling to Protect the PCBA / 52.7 52.3 PCBA Hardware Acceptability Considerations / 52.10 52.4 Component Installation or Placement Requirements / 52.15 52.5 Component and PCB Solderability Requirements / 52.25 52.6 Solder-Related Defects / 52.25 52.7 PCBA Laminate Condition, Cleanliness, and Marking Requirements / 52.32 52.8 PCBA Coatings / 52.34 52.9 Solderless Wrapping of Wire to Posts (Wire Wrap) / 52.35 52.10 PCBA Modifications / 52.37 References / 52.39 Chapter 53. Assembly Inspection 53.1 53.1 Introduction / 53.1 53.2 Definition of Defects, Faults, Process Indicators, and Potential Defects / 53.3 53.3 Reasons for Inspection / 53.4 53.4 Lead-Free Impact on Inspection / 53.6 53.5 Miniaturization and Higher Complexity / 53.8 53.6 Visual Inspection / 53.8 53.7 Automated Inspection / 53.12 53.8 Three-Dimensional Automated Solder Paste Inspection / 53.14 53.9 PRE-Reflow Aoi / 53.16 53.10 Post-Reflow Automated Inspection / 53.17 53.11 Implementation of Inspection Systems / 53.23 53.12 Design Implications of Inspection Systems / 53.24 References / 53.25 Chapter 54. Design for Testing 54.1 54.1 Introduction / 54.1 54.2 Definitions / 54.2 54.3 AD HOC Design for Testability / 54.2 54.4 Structured Design for Testability / 54.4 54.5 Standards-Based Testing / 54.5 References / 54.12 Chapter 55. Loaded Board Testing 55.1 55.1 Introduction / 55.1 55.2 The process of Test / 55.1 55.3 Definitions / 55.4 55.4 Testing Approaches / 55.7 55.5 In-Circuit Test Techniques / 55.11 55.6 Alternatives to Conventional Electrical Tests / 55.17 55.7 Tester Comparison / 55.19 References / 55.20 Part 13 Reliability Chapter 56. Conductive Anodic Filament Formation 56.3 56.1 Introduction / 56.3 56.2 Understanding CAF Formation / 56.3 xvi CONTENTS 56.3 Electrochemical Migration and Formation of CAF / 56.7 56.4 Factors that Affect CAF Formation / 56.10 56.5 Test Method for CAF-Resistant Materials / 56.14 56.6 Manufacturing Tolerance Considerations / 56.14 References / 56.15 Chapter 57. Reliability of Printed Circuit Assemblies 57.1 57.1 Fundamentals of Reliability / 57.2 57.2 Failure Mechanisms of PCBS and Their Interconnects / 57.4 57.3 Influence of Design on Reliability / 57.19 57.4 Impact of PCB Fabrication and Assembly on Reliability / 57.20 57.5 Influence of Materials Selection on Reliability / 57.27 57.6 Burn-in, Acceptance Testing, and Accelerated Reliability Testing / 57.36 57.7 Summary / 57.45 References / 57.45 Further Reading / 57.47 Chapter 58. Component-to-PWB Reliability: The Impact of Design Variables and Lead Free 58.1 58.1 Introduction / 58.1 58.2 Packaging Challenges / 58.2 58.3 Variables that Impact Reliability / 58.5 References / 58.30 Chapter 59. Component-to-PWB Reliability: Estimating Solder-Joint Reliability and the Impact of Lead-Free Solders 59.1 59.1 Introduction / 59.1 59.2 Thermomechanical Reliability / 59.3 59.3 Mechanical Reliability / 59.20 59.4 Finite Element Analysis (FEA) / 59.27 References / 59.35 Part 14 Environmental Issues Chapter 60. Process Waste Minimization and Treatment 60.3 60.1 Introduction / 60.3 60.2 Regulatory Compliance / 60.3 60.3 Major Sources and Amounts of Wastewater in a Printed Circuit Board Fabrication Facility / 60.5 60.4 Waste Minimization / 60.6 60.5 Pollution Prevention Techniques / 60.8 60.6 Recycling and Recovery Techniques / 60.15 60.7 Alternative Treatments / 60.18 60.8 Chemical Treatment Systems / 60.21 60.9 Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Treatment Alternatives / 60.26 CONTENTS xvii Part 15 Flexible Circuits Chapter 61. Flexible Circuit Applications and Materials 61.3 61.1 Introduction to Flexible Circuits / 61.3 61.2 Applications of Flexible Circuits / 61.6 61.3 High-Density Flexible Circuits / 61.6 61.4 Materials for Flexible Circuits / 61.8 61.5 Substrate Material Properties / 61.9 61.6 Conductor Materials / 61.13 61.7 Copper-Clad Laminates / 61.14 61.8 Coverlay Material / 61.19 61.9 Stiffener Materials / 61.22 61.10 Adhesive materials / 61.22 61.11 Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) Issues / 61.23 Chapter 62. Design of Flexible Circuits 62.1 62.1 Introduction / 62.1 62.2 Design Procedure / 62.1 62.3 Types of Flexible Circuits / 62.2 62.4 Circuit Designs for Flexibility / 62.12 62.5 Electrical Design of the Circuits / 62.15 62.6 Circuit Designs for Higher Reliability / 62.16 62.7 Circuit Designs for RoHS Compliance / 62.17 Chapter 63. Manufacturing of Flexible Circuits 63.1 63.1 Introduction / 63.1 63.2 Special Issues with HDI Flexible Circuits / 63.1 63.3 Basic Process Elements / 63.3 63.4 New Processes for Fine Traces / 63.14 63.5 Coverlay Processes / 63.24 63.6 Surface Treatment / 63.30 63.7 Blanking / 63.31 63.8 Stiffener Processes / 63.33 63.9 Packaging / 63.33 63.10 Roll-to-Roll Manufacturing / 63.34 63.11 Dimension Control / 63.36 Chapter 64. Termination of Flexible Circuits 64.1 64.1 Introduction / 64.1 64.2 Selection of Termination Technologies / 64.1 64.3 Permanent Connections / 64.4 64.4 Semipermanent Connections / 64.11 64.5 Nonpermanent Connections / 64.13 64.6 High-Density Flexible Circuit Termination / 64.20 Chapter 65. Multilayer Flex and Rigid/Flex 65.1 65.1 Introduction / 65.1 65.2 Multilayer Rigid/flex / 65.1 xviii CONTENTS Chapter 66. Special Constructions of Flexible Circuits 66.1 66.1 Introduction / 66.1 66.2 Flying-Lead Construction / 66.1 66.3 Tape Automated Bonding / 66.8 66.4 Microbump Arrays / 66.10 66.5 Thick-Film Conductor Flex Circuits / 66.12 66.6 Shielding of the Flexible Cables / 66.13 66.7 Functional Flexible Circuits / 66.14 Chapter 67. Quality Assurance of Flexible Circuits 67.1 67.1 Introduction / 67.1 67.2 Basic Concepts in Flexible Circuit Quality Assurance / 67.1 67.3 Automatic Optical Inspection Systems / 67.2 67.4 Dimensional Measurements / 67.3 67.5 Electrical Tests / 67.3 67.6 Inspection Sequence / 67.3 67.7 Raw Materials / 67.6 67.8 Flexible Circuit Feature Inspection / 67.6 67.9 Standards and Specifications for Flexible Circuits / 67.8 Appendix A.1 Glossary G.1 Index I.1

Complete Digital Design - A Comprehensive Guide to Digital Electronics and Computer System Architecture PART 1 Digital Fundamentals Chapter 1 Digital Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 1.1 Boolean Logic / 3 1.2 Boolean Manipulation / 7 1.3 The Karnaugh map / 8 1.4 Binary and Hexadecimal Numbering / 10 1.5 Binary Addition / 14 1.6 Subtraction and Negative Numbers / 15 1.7 Multiplication and Division / 17 1.8 Flip-Flops and Latches / 18 1.9 Synchronous Logic / 21 1.10 Synchronous Timing Analysis / 23 1.11 Clock Skew / 25 1.12 Clock Jitter / 27 1.13 Derived Logical Building Blocks / 28 Chapter 2 Integrated Circuits and the 7400 Logic Families. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 2.1 The Integrated Circuit / 33 2.2 IC Packaging / 38 2.3 The 7400-Series Discrete Logic Family / 41 2.4 Applying the 7400 Family to Logic Design / 43 2.5 Synchronous Logic Design with the 7400 Family / 45 2.6 Common Variants of the 7400 Family / 50 2.7 Interpreting a Digital IC Data Sheet / 51 Chapter 3 Basic Computer Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 3.1 The Digital Computer / 56 3.2 Microprocessor Internals / 58 3.3 Subroutines and the Stack / 60 3.4 Reset and Interrupts / 62 3.5 Implementation of an Eight-Bit Computer / 63 3.6 Address Banking / 67 3.7 Direct Memory Access / 68 3.8 Extending the Microprocessor Bus / 70 3.9 Assembly Language and Addressing Modes / 72 Chapter 4 Memory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77 4.1 Memory Classifications / 77 4.2 EPROM / 79 4.3 Flash Memory / 81 4.4 EEPROM / 85 4.5 Asynchronous SRAM / 86 4.6 Asynchronous DRAM / 88 4.7 Multiport Memory / 92 4.8 The FIFO / 94 Chapter 5 Serial Communications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97 5.1 Serial vs. Parallel Communication / 98 5.2 The UART / 99 5.3 ASCII Data Representation / 102 5.4 RS-232 / 102 5.5 RS-422 / 107 5.6 Modems and Baud Rate / 108 5.7 Network Topologies / 109 5.8 Network Data Formats / 110 5.9 RS-485 / 112 5.10 A Simple RS-485 Network / 114 5.11 Interchip Serial Communications / 117 Chapter 6 Instructive Microprocessors and Microcomputer Elements . . . . . . . . . .121 6.1 Evolution / 121 6.2 Motorola 6800 Eight-bit Microprocessor Family / 122 6.3 Intel 8051 Microcontroller Family / 125 6.4 Microchip PIC® Microcontroller Family / 131 6.5 Intel 8086 16-Bit Microprocessor Family / 134 6.6 Motorola 68000 16/32-Bit Microprocessor Family / 139 PART 2 Advanced Digital Systems Chapter 7 Advanced Microprocessor Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145 7.1 RISC and CISC / 145 7.2 Cache Structures / 149 7.3 Caches in Practice / 154 7.4 Virtual Memory and the MMU / 158 7.5 Superpipelined and Superscalar Architectures / 161 7.6 Floating-Point Arithmetic / 165 7.7 Digital Signal Processors / 167 7.8 Performance Metrics / 169 Chapter 8 High-Performance Memory Technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173 8.1 Synchronous DRAM / 173 8.2 Double Data Rate SDRAM / 179 8.3 Synchronous SRAM / 182 8.4 DDR and QDR SRAM / 185 8.5 Content Addressable Memory / 188 Chapter 9 Networking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193 9.1 Protocol Layers One and Two / 193 9.2 Protocol Layers Three and Four / 194 9.3 Physical Media / 197 9.4 Channel Coding / 198 9.5 8B10B Coding / 203 9.6 Error Detection / 207 9.7 Checksum / 208 9.8 Cyclic Redundancy Check / 209 9.9 Ethernet / 215 Chapter 10 Logic Design and Finite State Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221 10.1 Hardware Description Languages / 221 10.2 CPU Support Logic / 227 10.3 Clock Domain Crossing / 233 10.4 Finite State Machines / 237 10.5 FSM Bus Control / 239 10.6 FSM Optimization / 243 10.7 Pipelining / 245 Chapter 11 Programmable Logic Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249 11.1 Custom and Programmable Logic / 249 11.2 GALs and PALs / 252 11.3 CPLDs / 255 11.4 FPGAs / 257 PART 3 Analog Basics for Digital Systems Chapter 12 Electrical Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267 12.1 Basic Circuits / 267 12.2 Loop and Node Analysis / 268 12.3 Resistance Combination / 271 12.4 Capacitors / 272 12.5 Capacitors as AC Elements / 274 12.6 Inductors / 276 12.7 Nonideal RLC Models / 276 12.8 Frequency Domain Analysis / 279 12.9 Lowpass and Highpass Filters / 283 12.10 Transformers / 288 Chapter 13 Diodes and Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .293 13.1 Diodes / 293 13.2 Power Circuits with Diodes / 296 13.3 Diodes in Digital Applications / 298 13.4 Bipolar Junction Transistors / 300 13.5 Digital Amplification with the BJT / 301 13.6 Logic Functions with the BJT / 304 13.7 Field-Effect Transistors / 306 13.8 Power FETs and JFETs / 309 Chapter 14 Operational Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .311 14.1 The Ideal Op-amp / 311 14.2 Characteristics of Real Op-amps / 316 14.3 Bandwidth Limitations / 324 14.4 Input Resistance / 325 14.5 Summation Amplifier Circuits / 328 14.6 Active Filters / 331 14.7 Comparators and Hysteresis / 333 Chapter 15 Analog Interfaces for Digital Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .339 15.1 Conversion between Analog and Digital Domains / 339 15.2 Sampling Rate and Aliasing / 341 15.3 ADC Circuits / 345 15.4 DAC Circuits / 348 15.5 Filters in Data Conversion Systems / 350 PART 4 Digital System Design in Practice Chapter 16 Clock Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .355 16.1 Crystal Oscillators and Ceramic Resonators / 355 16.2 Low-Skew Clock Buffers / 357 16.3 Zero-Delay Buffers: The PLL / 360 16.4 Frequency Synthesis / 364 16.5 Delay-Locked Loops / 366 16.6 Source-Synchronous Clocking / 367 Chapter 17 Voltage Regulation and Power Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .371 17.1 Voltage Regulation Basics / 372 17.2 Thermal Analysis / 374 17.3 Zener Diodes and Shunt Regulators / 376 17.4 Transistors and Discrete Series Regulators / 379 17.5 Linear Regulators / 382 17.6 Switching Regulators / 386 17.7 Power Distribution / 389 17.8 Electrical Integrity / 392 Chapter 18 Signal Integrity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .397 18.1 Transmission Lines / 398 18.2 Termination / 403 18.3 Crosstalk / 408 18.4 Electromagnetic Interference / 410 18.5 Grounding and Electromagnetic Compatibility / 413 18.6 Electrostatic Discharge / 415 Chapter 19 Designing for Success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .419 19.1 Practical Technologies / 420 19.2 Printed Circuit Boards / 422 19.3 Manually Wired Circuits / 425 19.4 Microprocessor Reset / 428 19.5 Design for Debug / 429 19.6 Boundary Scan / 431 19.7 Diagnostic Software / 433 19.8 Schematic Capture and Spice / 436 19.9 Test Equipment / 440 Appendix A Further Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .443 Index 445

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