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2019-07-21 05:00:25
High-voltage Differential Probes activate
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High-voltage Differential Probes下载
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High
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degital electronics
Preface xxi 1 Number Systems 1 1.1 Analogue Versus Digital 1 1.2 Introduction to Number Systems 2 1.3 Decimal Number System 2 1.4 Binary Number System 3 1.4.1 Advantages 3 1.5 Octal Number System 4 1.6 Hexadecimal Number System 4 1.7 Number Systems – Some Common Terms 4 1.7.1 Binary Number System 4 1.7.2 Decimal Number System 5 1.7.3 Octal Number System 5 1.7.4 Hexadecimal Number System 5 1.8 Number Representation in Binary 5 1.8.1 Sign-Bit Magnitude 5 1.8.2 1’s Complement 6 1.8.3 2’s Complement 6 1.9 Finding the Decimal Equivalent 6 1.9.1 Binary-to-Decimal Conversion 6 1.9.2 Octal-to-Decimal Conversion 6 1.9.3 Hexadecimal-to-Decimal Conversion 7 1.10 Decimal-to-Binary Conversion 7 1.11 Decimal-to-Octal Conversion 8 1.12 Decimal-to-Hexadecimal Conversion 9 1.13 Binary–Octal and Octal–Binary Conversions 9 1.14 Hex–Binary and Binary–Hex Conversions 10 1.15 Hex–Octal and Octal–Hex Conversions 10 1.16 The Four Axioms 11 1.17 Floating-Point Numbers 12 1.17.1 Range of Numbers and Precision 13 1.17.2 Floating-Point Number Formats 13 viii Contents Review Questions 17
Pro
blems 17 Further Reading 18 2 Binary Codes 19 2.1 Binary Coded Decimal 19 2.1.1 BCD-to-Binary Conversion 20 2.1.2 Binary-to-BCD Conversion 20 2.1.3
High
er-Density BCD Encoding 21 2.1.4 Packed and Unpacked BCD Numbers 21 2.2 Excess-3 Code 21 2.3 Gray Code 23 2.3.1 Binary–Gray Code Conversion 24 2.3.2 Gray Code–Binary Conversion 25 2.3.3 n-ary Gray Code 25 2.3.4 Applications 25 2.4 Alphanumeric Codes 27 2.4.1 ASCII code 28 2.4.2 EBCDIC code 31 2.4.3 Unicode 37 2.5 Seven-segment Display Code 38 2.6 Error Detection and Correction Codes 40 2.6.1 Parity Code 41 2.6.2 Repetition Code 41 2.6.3 Cyclic Redundancy Check Code 41 2.6.4 Hamming Code 42 Review Questions 44
Pro
blems 45 Further Reading 45 3 Digital Arithmetic 47 3.1 Basic Rules of Binary Addition and Subtraction 47 3.2 Addition of Larger-Bit Binary Numbers 49 3.2.1 Addition Using the 2’s Complement Method 49 3.3 Subtraction of Larger-Bit Binary Numbers 52 3.3.1 Subtraction Using 2’s Complement Arithmetic 53 3.4 BCD Addition and Subtraction in Excess-3 Code 57 3.4.1 Addition 57 3.4.2 Subtraction 57 3.5 Binary Multiplication 58 3.5.1 Repeated Left-Shift and Add Algorithm 59 3.5.2 Repeated Add and Right-Shift Algorithm 59 3.6 Binary Division 60 3.6.1 Repeated Right-Shift and Subtract Algorithm 61 3.6.2 Repeated Subtract and Left-Shift Algorithm 62 3.7 Floating-Point Arithmetic 64 3.7.1 Addition and Subtraction 65 3.7.2 Multiplication and Division 65 Contents ix Review Questions 67
Pro
blems 68 Further Reading 68 4 Logic Gates and Related Devices 69 4.1 Positive and Negative Logic 69 4.2 Truth Table 70 4.3 Logic Gates 71 4.3.1 OR Gate 71 4.3.2 AND Gate 73 4.3.3 NOT Gate 75 4.3.4 EXCLUSIVE-OR Gate 76 4.3.5 NAND Gate 79 4.3.6 NOR Gate 79 4.3.7 EXCLUSIVE-NOR Gate 80 4.3.8 INHIBIT Gate 82 4.4 Universal Gates 85 4.5 Gates with Open Collector/Drain Outputs 85 4.6 Tristate Logic Gates 87 4.7 AND-OR-INVERT Gates 87 4.8 Schmitt Gates 88 4.9 Spec
ial
Output Gates 91 4.10 Fan-Out of Logic Gates 95 4.11 Buffers and Transceivers 98 4.12 IEEE/ANSI Standard Symbols 100 4.12.1 IEEE/ANSI Standards – Salient Features 100 4.12.2 ANSI Symbols for Logic Gate ICs 101 4.13 Some Common Applications of Logic Gates 102 4.13.1 OR Gate 103 4.13.2 AND Gate 104 4.13.3 EX-OR/EX-NOR Gate 104 4.13.4 Inverter 105 4.14 Application-Relevant Information 107 Review Questions 109
Pro
blems 110 Further Reading 114 5 Logic Families 115 5.1 Logic Families – Significance and Types 115 5.1.1 Significance 115 5.1.2 Types of Logic Family 116 5.2 Characteristic Parameters 118 5.3 Transistor Transistor Logic (TTL) 124 5.3.1 Standard TTL 125 5.3.2 Other Logic Gates in Standard TTL 127 5.3.3 Low-Power TTL 133 5.3.4
High
-Power TTL (74H/54H) 134 5.3.5 Schottky TTL (74S/54S) 135 x Contents 5.3.6 Low-Power Schottky TTL (74LS/54LS) 136 5.3.7 Advanced Low-Power Schottky TTL (74ALS/54ALS) 137 5.3.8 Advanced Schottky TTL (74AS/54AS) 139 5.3.9 Fairchild Advanced Schottky TTL (74F/54F) 140 5.3.10 Floating and Unused Inputs 141 5.3.11 Current Transients and Power Supply Decoupling 142 5.4 Emitter Coupled Logic (ECL) 147 5.4.1
Diff
erent
Subfamilies 147 5.4.2 Logic Gate Implementation in ECL 148 5.4.3 Salient Features of ECL 150 5.5 CMOS Logic Family 151 5.5.1 Circuit Implementation of Logic Functions 151 5.5.2 CMOS Subfamilies 165 5.6 BiCMOS Logic 170 5.6.1 BiCMOS Inverter 171 5.6.2 BiCMOS NAND 171 5.7 NMOS and PMOS Logic 172 5.7.1 PMOS Logic 173 5.7.2 NMOS Logic 174 5.8 Integrated Injection Logic (I2L) Family 174 5.9 Comparison of
Diff
erent
Logic Families 176 5.10 Guidelines to Using TTL Devices 176 5.11 Guidelines to Handling and Using CMOS Devices 179 5.12 Interfacing with
Diff
erent
Logic Families 179 5.12.1 CMOS-to-TTL Interface 179 5.12.2 TTL-to-CMOS Interface 180 5.12.3 TTL-to-ECL and ECL-to-TTL Interfaces 180 5.12.4 CMOS-to-ECL and ECL-to-CMOS Interfaces 183 5.13 Classification of Digital ICs 183 5.14 Application-Relevant Information 184 Review Questions 185
Pro
blems 185 Further Reading 187 6 Boolean Algebra and Simplification Techniques 189 6.1 Introduction to Boolean Algebra 189 6.1.1 Variables, Literals and Terms in Boolean Expressions 190 6.1.2 Equivalent and Complement of Boolean Expressions 190 6.1.3 Dual of a Boolean Expression 191 6.2 Postulates of Boolean Algebra 192 6.3 Theorems of Boolean Algebra 192 6.3.1 Theorem 1 (Operations with ‘0’ and ‘1’) 192 6.3.2 Theorem 2 (Operations with ‘0’ and ‘1’) 193 6.3.3 Theorem 3 (Idempotent or Identity Laws) 193 6.3.4 Theorem 4 (Complementation Law) 193 6.3.5 Theorem 5 (Commutative Laws) 194 6.3.6 Theorem 6 (Associative Laws) 194 6.3.7 Theorem 7 (Distributive Laws) 195 Contents xi 6.3.8 Theorem 8 196 6.3.9 Theorem 9 197 6.3.10 Theorem 10 (Absorption Law or Redundancy Law) 197 6.3.11 Theorem 11 197 6.3.12 Theorem 12 (Consensus Theorem) 198 6.3.13 Theorem 13 (DeMorgan’s Theorem) 199 6.3.14 Theorem 14 (Transposition Theorem) 200 6.3.15 Theorem 15 201 6.3.16 Theorem 16 201 6.3.17 Theorem 17 (Involution Law) 202 6.4 Simplification Techniques 204 6.4.1 Sum-of-
Pro
ducts Boolean Expressions 204 6.4.2
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duct-of-Sums Expressions 205 6.4.3 Expanded Forms of Boolean Expressions 206 6.4.4 Canonical Form of Boolean Expressions 206 6.4.5 and Nomenclature 207 6.5 Quine–McCluskey Tabular Method 208 6.5.1 Tabular Method for Multi-Output Functions 212 6.6 Karnaugh Map Method 216 6.6.1 Construction of a Karnaugh Map 216 6.6.2 Karnaugh Map for Boolean Expressions with a Larger Number of Variables 222 6.6.3 Karnaugh Maps for Multi-Output Functions 225 Review Questions 230
Pro
blems 230 Further Reading 231 7 Arithmetic Circuits 233 7.1 Combinational Circuits 233 7.2 Implementing Combinational Logic 235 7.3 Arithmetic Circuits – Basic Building Blocks 236 7.3.1 Half-Adder 236 7.3.2 Full Adder 237 7.3.3 Half-Subtractor 240 7.3.4 Full Subtractor 242 7.3.5 Controlled Inverter 244 7.4 Adder–Subtractor 245 7.5 BCD Adder 246 7.6 Carry
Pro
pagation–Look-Ahead Carry Generator 254 7.7 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) 260 7.8 Multipliers 260 7.9 Magnitude Comparator 261 7.9.1 Cascading Magnitude Comparators 263 7.10 Application-Relevant Information 266 Review Questions 266
Pro
blems 267 Further Reading 268 xii Contents 8 Multiplexers and Demultiplexers 269 8.1 Multiplexer 269 8.1.1 Inside the Multiplexer 271 8.1.2 Implementing Boolean Functions with Multiplexers 273 8.1.3 Multiplexers for Parallel-to-Ser
ial
Data Conversion 277 8.1.4 Cascading Multiplexer Circuits 280 8.2 Encoders 280 8.2.1 Priority Encoder 281 8.3 Demultiplexers and Decoders 285 8.3.1 Implementing Boolean Functions with Decoders 286 8.3.2 Cascading Decoder Circuits 288 8.4 Application-Relevant Information 293 Review Questions 294
Pro
blems 295 Further Reading 298 9
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grammable Logic Devices 299 9.1 Fixed Logic Versus
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grammable Logic 299 9.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages 301 9.2
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grammable Logic Devices – An Overview 302 9.2.1
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grammable ROMs 302 9.2.2
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grammable Logic Array 302 9.2.3
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grammable Array Logic 304 9.2.4 Generic Array Logic 305 9.2.5 Complex
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grammable Logic Device 306 9.2.6 Field-
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grammable Gate Array 307 9.3
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grammable ROMs 308 9.4
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grammable Logic Array 312 9.5
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grammable Array Logic 317 9.5.1 PAL Architecture 319 9.5.2 PAL Numbering System 320 9.6 Generic Array Logic 325 9.7 Complex
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grammable Logic Devices 328 9.7.1 Internal Architecture 328 9.7.2 Applications 330 9.8 Field-
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grammable Gate Arrays 331 9.8.1 Internal Architecture 331 9.8.2 Applications 333 9.9
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grammable Interconnect Technologies 333 9.9.1 Fuse 334 9.9.2 Floating-Gate Transistor Switch 334 9.9.3 Static RAM-Controlled
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grammable Switches 335 9.9.4 Antifuse 335 9.10 Design and Development of
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grammable Logic Hardware 337 9.11
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gramming Languages 338 9.11.1 ABEL-Hardware Description Language 339 9.11.2 VHDL-VHSIC Hardware Description Language 339 Contents xiii 9.11.3 Verilog 339 9.11.4 Java HDL 340 9.12 Application Information on PLDs 340 9.12.1 SPLDs 340 9.12.2 CPLDs 343 9.12.3 FPGAs 349 Review Questions 352
Pro
blems 353 Further Reading 355 10 Flip-Flops and Related Devices 357 10.1 Multivibrator 357 10.1.1 Bistable Multivibrator 357 10.1.2 Schmitt Trigger 358 10.1.3 Monostable Multivibrator 360 10.1.4 Astable Multivibrator 362 10.2 Integrated Circuit (IC) Multivibrators 363 10.2.1 Digital IC-Based Monostable Multivibrator 363 10.2.2 IC Timer-Based Multivibrators 363 10.3 R-S Flip-Flop 373 10.3.1 R-S Flip-Flop with Active LOW Inputs 374 10.3.2 R-S Flip-Flop with Active
HIGH
Inputs 375 10.3.3 Clocked R-S Flip-Flop 377 10.4 Level-Triggered and Edge-Triggered Flip-Flops 381 10.5 J-K Flip-Flop 382 10.5.1 J-K Flip-Flop with PRESET and CLEAR Inputs 382 10.5.2 Master–Slave Flip-Flops 382 10.6 Toggle Flip-Flop (T Flip-Flop) 390 10.6.1 J-K Flip-Flop as a Toggle Flip-Flop 391 10.7 D Flip-Flop 394 10.7.1 J-K Flip-Flop as D Flip-Flop 395 10.7.2 D Latch 395 10.8 Synchronous and Asynchronous Inputs 398 10.9 Flip-Flop Timing Parameters 399 10.9.1 Set-Up and Hold Times 399 10.9.2
Pro
pagation Delay 399 10.9.3 Clock Pulse
HIGH
and LOW Times 401 10.9.4 Asynchronous Input Active Pulse Width 401 10.9.5 Clock Transition Times 402 10.9.6 Maximum Clock Frequency 402 10.10 Flip-Flop Applications 402 10.10.1 Switch Debouncing 402 10.10.2 Flip-Flop Synchronization 404 10.10.3 Detecting the Sequence of Edges 404 10.11 Application-Relevant Data 407 Review Questions 408
Pro
blems 409 Further Reading 410 xiv Contents 11 Counters and Registers 411 11.1 Ripple (Asynchronous) Counter 411 11.1.1
Pro
pagation Delay in Ripple Counters 412 11.2 Synchronous Counter 413 11.3 Modulus of a Counter 413 11.4 Binary Ripple Counter – Operational Basics 413 11.4.1 Binary Ripple Counters with a Modulus of Less than 2N 416 11.4.2 Ripple Counters in IC Form 418 11.5 Synchronous (or Parallel) Counters 423 11.6 UP/DOWN Counters 425 11.7 Decade and BCD Counters 426 11.8 Presettable Counters 426 11.8.1 Variable Modulus with Presettable Counters 428 11.9 Decoding a Counter 428 11.10 Cascading Counters 433 11.10.1 Cascading Binary Counters 433 11.10.2 Cascading BCD Counters 435 11.11 Designing Counters with Arbitrary Sequences 438 11.11.1 Excitation Table of a Flip-Flop 438 11.11.2 State Transition Diagram 439 11.11.3 Design
Pro
cedure 439 11.12 Shift Register 447 11.12.1 Ser
ial
-In Ser
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-Out Shift Register 449 11.12.2 Ser
ial
-In Parallel-Out Shift Register 452 11.12.3 Parallel-In Ser
ial
-Out Shift Register 452 11.12.4 Parallel-In Parallel-Out Shift Register 453 11.12.5 Bidirectional Shift Register 455 11.12.6 Universal Shift Register 455 11.13 Shift Register Counters 459 11.13.1 Ring Counter 459 11.13.2 Shift Counter 460 11.14 IEEE/ANSI Symbology for Registers and Counters 464 11.14.1 Counters 464 11.14.2 Registers 466 11.15 Application-Relevant Information 466 Review Questions 466
Pro
blems 469 Further Reading 471 12 Data Conversion Circuits – D/A and A/D Converters 473 12.1 Digital-to-Analogue Converters 473 12.1.1 Simple Resistive Divider Network for D/A Conversion 474 12.1.2 Binary Ladder Network for D/A Conversion 475 12.2 D/A Converter Specifications 476 12.2.1 Resolution 476 12.2.2 Accuracy 477 12.2.3 Conversion Speed or Settling Time 477 12.2.4 Dynamic Range 478 Contents xv 12.2.5 Nonlinearity and
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Nonlinearity 478 12.2.6 Monotonocity 478 12.3 Types of D/A Converter 479 12.3.1 Multiplying D/A Converters 479 12.3.2 Bipolar-Output D/A Converters 480 12.3.3 Companding D/A Converters 480 12.4 Modes of Operation 480 12.4.1 Current Steering Mode of Operation 480 12.4.2
Voltage
Switching Mode of Operation 481 12.5 BCD-Input D/A Converter 482 12.6 Integrated Circuit D/A Converters 486 12.6.1 DAC-08 486 12.6.2 DAC-0808 487 12.6.3 DAC-80 487 12.6.4 AD 7524 489 12.6.5 DAC-1408/DAC-1508 489 12.7 D/A Converter Applications 490 12.7.1 D/A Converter as a Multiplier 490 12.7.2 D/A converter as a Divider 490 12.7.3
Pro
grammable Integrator 491 12.7.4 Low-Frequency Function Generator 492 12.7.5 Digitally Controlled Filters 493 12.8 A/D Converters 495 12.9 A/D Converter Specifications 495 12.9.1 Resolution 495 12.9.2 Accuracy 496 12.9.3 Gain and Offset Errors 496 12.9.4 Gain and Offset Drifts 496 12.9.5 Sampling Frequency and Aliasing Phenomenon 496 12.9.6 Quantization Error 496 12.9.7 Nonlinearity 497 12.9.8
Diff
erent
ial
Nonlinearity 497 12.9.9 Conversion Time 498 12.9.10 Aperture and Acquisition Times 498 12.9.11 Code Width 499 12.10 A/D Converter Terminology 499 12.10.1 Unipolar Mode Operation 499 12.10.2 Bipolar Mode Operation 499 12.10.3 Coding 499 12.10.4 Low Byte and
High
Byte 499 12.10.5 Right-Justified Data, Left-Justified Data 499 12.10.6 Command Register, Status Register 500 12.10.7 Control Lines 500 12.11 Types of A/D Converter 500 12.11.1 Simultaneous or Flash A/D Converters 500 12.11.2 Half-Flash A/D Converter 503 12.11.3 Counter-Type A/D Converter 504 12.11.4 Tracking-Type A/D Converter 505 xvi Contents 12.11.5 Successive Ap
pro
ximation Type A/D Converter 505 12.11.6 Single-, Dual- and Multislope A/D Converters 506 12.11.7 Sigma-Delta A/D Converter 509 12.12 Integrated Circuit A/D Converters 513 12.12.1 ADC-0800 513 12.12.2 ADC-0808 514 12.12.3 ADC-80/AD ADC-80 515 12.12.4 ADC-84/ADC-85/AD ADC-84/AD ADC-85/AD-5240 516 12.12.5 AD 7820 516 12.12.6 ICL 7106/ICL 7107 517 12.13 A/D Converter Applications 520 12.13.1 Data Acquisition 521 Review Questions 522
Pro
blems 523 Further Reading 523 13 Micro
pro
cessors 525 13.1 Introduction to Micro
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cessors 525 13.2 Evolution of Micro
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cessors 527 13.3 Inside a Micro
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cessor 528 13.3.1 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) 529 13.3.2 Register File 529 13.3.3 Control Unit 531 13.4 Basic Micro
pro
cessor Instructions 531 13.4.1 Data Transfer Instructions 531 13.4.2 Arithmetic Instructions 532 13.4.3 Logic Instructions 533 13.4.4 Control Transfer or Branch or
Pro
gram Control Instructions 533 13.4.5 Machine Control Instructions 534 13.5 Addressing Modes 534 13.5.1 Absolute or Memory Direct Addressing Mode 534 13.5.2 Immediate Addressing Mode 535 13.5.3 Register Direct Addressing Mode 535 13.5.4 Register Indirect Addressing Mode 535 13.5.5 Indexed Addressing Mode 536 13.5.6 Implicit Addressing Mode and Relative Addressing Mode 537 13.6 Micro
pro
cessor Selection 537 13.6.1 Selection Criteria 537 13.6.2 Micro
pro
cessor Selection Table for Common Applications 539 13.7
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gramming Micro
pro
cessors 540 13.8 RISC Versus CISC
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cessors 541 13.9 Eight-Bit Micro
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cessors 541 13.9.1 8085 Micro
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cessor 541 13.9.2 Motorola 6800 Micro
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cessor 544 13.9.3 Zilog Z80 Micro
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cessor 546 13.10 16-Bit Micro
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cessors 547 13.10.1 8086 Micro
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cessor 547 13.10.2 80186 Micro
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cessor 548 Contents xvii 13.10.3 80286 Micro
pro
cessor 548 13.10.4 MC68000 Micro
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cessor 549 13.11 32-Bit Micro
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cessors 551 13.11.1 80386 Micro
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cessor 551 13.11.2 MC68020 Micro
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cessor 553 13.11.3 MC68030 Micro
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cessor 554 13.11.4 80486 Micro
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cessor 555 13.11.5 PowerPC RISC Micro
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cessors 557 13.12 Pentium Series of Micro
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cessors 557 13.12.1 Salient Features 558 13.12.2 Pentium
Pro
Micro
pro
cessor 559 13.12.3 Pentium II Series 559 13.12.4 Pentium III and Pentium IV Micro
pro
cessors 559 13.12.5 Pentium M, D and Extreme Edition
Pro
cessors 559 13.12.6 Celeron and Xeon
Pro
cessors 560 13.13 Micro
pro
cessors for Embedded Applications 560 13.14 Peripheral Devices 560 13.14.1
Pro
grammable Timer/Counter 561 13.14.2
Pro
grammable Peripheral Interface 561 13.14.3
Pro
grammable Interrupt Controller 561 13.14.4 DMA Controller 561 13.14.5
Pro
grammable Communication Interface 562 13.14.6 Math Co
pro
cessor 562 13.14.7
Pro
grammable Keyboard/Display Interface 562 13.14.8
Pro
grammable CRT Controller 562 13.14.9 Floppy Disk Controller 563 13.14.10 Clock Generator 563 13.14.11 Octal Bus Transceiver 563 Review Questions 563 Further Reading 564 14 Microcontrollers 565 14.1 Introduction to the Microcontroller 565 14.1.1 Applications 567 14.2 Inside the Microcontroller 567 14.2.1 Central
Pro
cessing Unit (CPU) 568 14.2.2 Random Access Memory (RAM) 569 14.2.3 Read Only Memory (ROM) 569 14.2.4 Spec
ial
-Function Registers 569 14.2.5 Peripheral Components 569 14.3 Microcontroller Architecture 574 14.3.1 Architecture to Access Memory 574 14.3.2 Mapping Spec
ial
-Function Registers into Memory Space 576 14.3.3
Pro
cessor Architecture 577 14.4 Power-Saving Modes 579 14.5 Application-Relevant Information 580 14.5.1 Eight-Bit Microcontrollers 580 14.5.2 16-Bit Microcontrollers 588 xviii Contents 14.5.3 32-Bit Microcontrollers 590 14.6 Interfacing Peripheral Devices with a Microcontroller 592 14.6.1 Interfacing LEDs 592 14.6.2 Interfacing Electromechanical Relays 593 14.6.3 Interfacing Keyboards 594 14.6.4 Interfacing Seven-Segment Displays 596 14.6.5 Interfacing LCD Displays 598 14.6.6 Interfacing A/D Converters 600 14.6.7 Interfacing D/A Converters 600 Review Questions 602
Pro
blems 602 Further Reading 603 15 Computer Fundamentals 605 15.1 Anatomy of a Computer 605 15.1.1 Central
Pro
cessing Unit 605 15.1.2 Memory 606 15.1.3 Input/Output Ports 607 15.2 A Computer System 607 15.3 Types of Computer System 607 15.3.1 Classification of Computers on the Basis of Applications 607 15.3.2 Classification of Computers on the Basis of the Technology Used 608 15.3.3 Classification of Computers on the Basis of Size and Capacity 609 15.4 Computer Memory 610 15.4.1 Primary Memory 611 15.5 Random Access Memory 612 15.5.1 Static RAM 612 15.5.2 Dynamic RAM 619 15.5.3 RAM Applications 622 15.6 Read Only Memory 622 15.6.1 ROM Architecture 623 15.6.2 Types of ROM 624 15.6.3 Applications of ROMs 629 15.7 Expanding Memory Capacity 632 15.7.1 Word Size Expansion 632 15.7.2 Memory Location Expansion 634 15.8 Input and Output Ports 637 15.8.1 Ser
ial
Ports 638 15.8.2 Parallel Ports 640 15.8.3 Internal Buses 642 15.9 Input/Output Devices 642 15.9.1 Input Devices 643 15.9.2 Output Devices 643 15.10 Secondary Storage or Auxiliary Storage 645 15.10.1 Magnetic Storage Devices 645 15.10.2 Magneto-Optical Storage Devices 648 15.10.3 Optical Storage Devices 648 15.10.4 USB Flash Drive 650 Contents xix Review Questions 650
Pro
blems 650 Further Reading 651 16 Troubleshooting Digital Circuits and Test Equipment 653 16.1 General Troubleshooting Guidelines 653 16.1.1 Faults Internal to Digital Integrated Circuits 654 16.1.2 Faults External to Digital Integrated Circuits 655 16.2 Troubleshooting Sequent
ial
Logic Circuits 659 16.3 Troubleshooting Arithmetic Circuits 663 16.4 Troubleshooting Memory Devices 664 16.4.1 Troubleshooting RAM Devices 664 16.4.2 Troubleshooting ROM Devices 664 16.5 Test and Measuring Equipment 665 16.6 Digital Multimeter 665 16.6.1 Advantages of Using a Digital Multimeter 666 16.6.2 Inside the Digital Meter 666 16.6.3 Significance of the Half-Digit 666 16.7 Oscilloscope 668 16.7.1 Importance of Specifications and Front-Panel Controls 668 16.7.2 Types of Oscilloscope 669 16.8 Analogue Oscilloscopes 669 16.9 CRT Storage Type Analogue Oscilloscopes 669 16.10 Digital Oscilloscopes 669 16.11 Analogue Versus Digital Oscilloscopes 672 16.12 Oscilloscope Specifications 672 16.12.1 Analogue Oscilloscopes 673 16.12.2 Analogue Storage Oscilloscope 674 16.12.3 Digital Storage Oscilloscope 674 16.13 Oscilloscope
Pro
bes
677 16.13.1
Pro
be Compensation 677 16.14 Frequency Counter 678 16.14.1 Universal Counters – Functional Modes 679 16.14.2 Basic Counter Architecture 679 16.14.3 Reci
pro
cal Counters 681 16.14.4 Continuous-Count Counters 682 16.14.5 Counter Specifications 682 16.14.6 Microwave Counters 683 16.15 Frequency Synthesizers and Synthesized Function/Signal Generators 684 16.15.1 Direct Frequency Synthesis 684 16.15.2 Indirect Synthesis 685 16.15.3 Sampled Sine Synthesis (Direct Digital Synthesis) 687 16.15.4 Important Specifications 689 16.15.5 Synthesized Function Generators 689 16.15.6 Arbitrary Waveform Generator 690 16.16 Logic
Pro
be 691 16.17 Logic Analyser 692 16.17.1 Operational Modes 692 xx Contents 16.17.2 Logic Analyser Architecture 692 16.17.3 Key Specifications 695 16.18 Computer–Instrument Interface Standards 696 16.18.1 IEEE-488 Interface 696 16.19 Virtual Instrumentation 697 16.19.1 Use of Virtual Instruments 698 16.19.2 Components of a Virtual Instrument 700 Review Questions 703
Pro
blems 704 Further Reading 705 Index 707
CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES FOR ORGANIC AND PEROVSKITE SOLAR CELLS
Perovskite solar cellsare
pro
mising candidates for the next generation of thin film photovoltaics, but also as top devices in tandem architectures with crystalline silicon or CIGS. This tutor
ial
presents
diff
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opto-electronic characterization techniq...
PCIE时钟DC/AC特性测试方法
1、Rising Edge Rate & Falling Edge Rate 0.6V/ns ≤ t ≤ 4V/ns 。 1)测试对象:差分波形(REFCLK+减REFCLK-)。 2)测试方法:VIL = -150mV,VIH = +150mV,以差分波形交叉0点位置为中心的300mV窗口。介于测量区间-150mV ~ +150mV内的波形必须单调。 2、VIH & VIL
Diff
erent
ial
Input
High
Voltage
:VIH ≥ +150mV 。
Diff
erent
i
Oscilloscope
Pro
be Choice
Oscilloscope
Pro
be Choice
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