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pull卡在unpacking objects
qq_33623624
2020-01-14 10:31:10
今天在另一台电脑上想pull自己仓库发现很慢 网上发现教程说把github导入到码云再从码云pull会很快 试了一下果然很快 顺便把那台电脑本地同时链接了码云和github的仓库 结果回来自己的电脑从github上就pull不下来了 一直卡在这一步 按网上的把仓库地址从http改成git也还是不行 求大佬解救
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pull卡在unpacking objects
今天在另一台电脑上想pull自己仓库发现很慢 网上发现教程说把github导入到码云再从码云pull会很快 试了一下果然很快 顺便把那台电脑本地同时链接了码云和github的仓库 结果回来自己的电脑从github上就pull不下来了 一直卡在这一步 按网上的把仓库地址从http改成git也还是不行 求大佬解救
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解决git
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解决git
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在un
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58%(57/97),网上搜了很多资料,都没有中文的详细解决案例,这里在这里上传一段总结,本来想写blog的。但因为没有分了,坑你们一分吧。但绝对实用。
python3.6.5参考手册 chm
Python参考手册,官方正式版参考手册,chm版。以下摘取部分内容:Navigation index modules | next | Python » 3.6.5 Documentation » Python Documentation contents What’s New in Python What’s New In Python 3.6 Summary – Release highlights New Features PEP 498: Formatted str
ing
literals PEP 526: Syntax for variable annotations PEP 515: Underscores in Numeric Literals PEP 525: Asynchronous Generators PEP 530: Asynchronous Comprehensions PEP 487: Simpler customization of class creation PEP 487: Descriptor Protocol Enhancements PEP 519: Add
ing
a file system path protocol PEP 495: Local Time Disambiguation PEP 529: Change Windows filesystem encod
ing
to UTF-8 PEP 528: Change Windows console encod
ing
to UTF-8 PEP 520: Preserv
ing
Class Attribute Definition Order PEP 468: Preserv
ing
Keyword Argument Order New dict implementation PEP 523: Add
ing
a frame evaluation API to CPython PYTHONMALLOC environment variable DTrace and SystemTap prob
ing
support Other Language Changes New Modules secrets Improved Modules array ast asyncio binascii cmath collections concurrent.futures contextlib datetime decimal distutils email encod
ing
s enum faulthandler fileinput hashlib http.client idlelib and IDLE importlib inspect json logg
ing
math multiprocess
ing
os pathlib pdb pickle pickletools pydoc random re readline rlcompleter shlex site sqlite3 socket socketserver ssl statistics struct subprocess sys telnetlib time timeit tkinter traceback tracemalloc typ
ing
unicodedata unittest.mock urllib.request urllib.robotparser venv warn
ing
s winreg winsound xmlrpc.client zipfile zlib Optimizations Build and C API Changes Other Improvements Deprecated New Keywords Deprecated Python behavior Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods asynchat asyncore dbm distutils grp importlib os re ssl tkinter venv Deprecated functions and types of the C API Deprecated Build Options Removed API and Feature Removals Port
ing
to Python 3.6 Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior Changes in the Python API Changes in the C API CPython bytecode changes Notable changes in Python 3.6.2 New make regen-all build target Removal of make touch build target Notable changes in Python 3.6.5 What’s New In Python 3.5 Summary – Release highlights New Features PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication PEP 448 - Additional Un
pack
ing
Generalizations PEP 461 - percent formatt
ing
support for bytes and bytearray PEP 484 - Type Hints PEP 471 - os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator PEP 475: Retry system calls fail
ing
with EINTR PEP 479: Change StopIteration handl
ing
inside generators PEP 485: A function for test
ing
approximate equality PEP 486: Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments PEP 488: Elimination of PYO files PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization Other Language Changes New Modules typ
ing
zipapp Improved Modules argparse asyncio bz2 cgi cmath code collections collections.abc compileall concurrent.futures configparser contextlib csv curses dbm difflib distutils doctest email enum faulthandler functools glob gzip heapq http http.client idlelib and IDLE imaplib imghdr importlib inspect io ipaddress json linecache locale logg
ing
lzma math multiprocess
ing
operator os pathlib pickle poplib re readline selectors shutil signal smtpd smtplib sndhdr socket ssl Memory BIO Support Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support Other Changes sqlite3 subprocess sys sysconfig tarfile thread
ing
time timeit tkinter traceback types unicodedata unittest unittest.mock urllib wsgiref xmlrpc xml.sax zipfile Other module-level changes Optimizations Build and C API Changes Deprecated New Keywords Deprecated Python Behavior Unsupported Operat
ing
Systems Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods Removed API and Feature Removals Port
ing
to Python 3.5 Changes in Python behavior Changes in the Python API Changes in the C API What’s New In Python 3.4 Summary – Release Highlights New Features PEP 453: Explicit Bootstrapp
ing
of PIP in Python Installations Bootstrapp
ing
pip By Default Documentation Changes PEP 446: Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable Improvements to Codec Handl
ing
PEP 451: A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System Other Language Changes New Modules asyncio ensurepip enum pathlib selectors statistics tracemalloc Improved Modules abc aifc argparse audioop base64 collections colorsys contextlib dbm dis doctest email filecmp functools gc glob hashlib hmac html http idlelib and IDLE importlib inspect ipaddress logg
ing
marshal mmap multiprocess
ing
operator os pdb pickle plistlib poplib pprint pty pydoc re resource select shelve shutil smtpd smtplib socket sqlite3 ssl stat struct subprocess sunau sys tarfile textwrap thread
ing
traceback types urllib unittest venv wave weakref xml.etree zipfile CPython Implementation Changes PEP 445: Customization of CPython Memory Allocators PEP 442: Safe
Object
Finalization PEP 456: Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm PEP 436: Argument Clinic Other Build and C API Changes Other Improvements Significant Optimizations Deprecated Deprecations in the Python API Deprecated Features Removed Operat
ing
Systems No Longer Supported API and Feature Removals Code Cleanups Port
ing
to Python 3.4 Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior Changes in the Python API Changes in the C API Changed in 3.4.3 PEP 476: Enabl
ing
certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients What’s New In Python 3.3 Summary – Release highlights PEP 405: Virtual Environments PEP 420: Implicit Namespace
Pack
ages PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation Features API changes PEP 393: Flexible Str
ing
Representation Functionality Performance and resource usage PEP 397: Python Launcher for Windows PEP 3151: Rework
ing
the OS and IO exception hierarchy PEP 380: Syntax for Delegat
ing
to a Subgenerator PEP 409: Suppress
ing
exception context PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions PEP 412: Key-Shar
ing
Dictionary PEP 362: Function Signature
Object
PEP 421: Add
ing
sys.implementation SimpleNamespace Us
ing
importlib as the Implementation of Import New APIs Visible Changes Other Language Changes A Finer-Grained Import Lock Builtin functions and types New Modules faulthandler ipaddress lzma Improved Modules abc array base64 binascii bz2 codecs collections contextlib crypt curses datetime decimal Features API changes email Policy Framework Provisional Policy with New Header API Other API Changes ftplib functools gc hmac http html imaplib inspect io itertools logg
ing
math mmap multiprocess
ing
nntplib os pdb pickle pydoc re sched select shlex shutil signal smtpd smtplib socket socketserver sqlite3 ssl stat struct subprocess sys tarfile tempfile textwrap thread
ing
time types unittest urllib webbrowser xml.etree.ElementTree zlib Optimizations Build and C API Changes Deprecated Unsupported Operat
ing
Systems Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods Deprecated functions and types of the C API Deprecated features Port
ing
to Python 3.3 Port
ing
Python code Port
ing
C code Build
ing
C extensions Command Line Switch Changes What’s New In Python 3.2 PEP 384: Defin
ing
a Stable ABI PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Pars
ing
Module PEP 391: Dictionary Based Configuration for Logg
ing
PEP 3148: The concurrent.futures module PEP 3147: PYC Repository Directories PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1 Other Language Changes New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules email elementtree functools itertools collections thread
ing
datetime and time math abc io reprlib logg
ing
csv contextlib decimal and fractions ftp popen select gzip and zipfile tarfile hashlib ast os shutil sqlite3 html socket ssl nntp certificates imaplib http.client unittest random poplib asyncore tempfile inspect pydoc dis dbm ctypes site sysconfig pdb configparser urllib.parse mailbox turtledemo Multi-thread
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Optimizations Unicode Codecs Documentation IDLE Code Repository Build and C API Changes Port
ing
to Python 3.2 What’s New In Python 3.1 PEP 372: Ordered Dictionaries PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator Other Language Changes New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules Optimizations IDLE Build and C API Changes Port
ing
to Python 3.1 What’s New In Python 3.0 Common Stumbl
ing
Blocks Print Is A Function Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists Order
ing
Comparisons Integers Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit Overview Of Syntax Changes New Syntax Changed Syntax Removed Syntax Changes Already Present In Python 2.6 Library Changes PEP 3101: A New Approach To Str
ing
Formatt
ing
Changes To Exceptions Miscellaneous Other Changes Operators And Special Methods Builtins Build and C API Changes Performance Port
ing
To Python 3.0 What’s New in Python 2.7 The Future for Python 2.x Changes to the Handl
ing
of Deprecation Warn
ing
s Python 3.1 Features PEP 372: Add
ing
an Ordered Dictionary to collections PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator PEP 389: The argparse Module for Pars
ing
Command Lines PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logg
ing
PEP 3106: Dictionary Views PEP 3137: The memoryview
Object
Other Language Changes Interpreter Changes Optimizations New and Improved Modules New module: importlib New module: sysconfig ttk: Themed Widgets for Tk Updated module: unittest Updated module: ElementTree 1.3 Build and C API Changes Capsules Port-Specific Changes: Windows Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X Port-Specific Changes: FreeBSD Other Changes and Fixes Port
ing
to Python 2.7 New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases PEP 434: IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches PEP 466: Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.6 Python 3.0 Changes to the Development Process New Issue Tracker: Roundup New Documentation Format: reStructuredText Us
ing
Sphinx PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement Writ
ing
Context Managers The contextlib module PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module PEP 370: Per-user site-
pack
ages Directory PEP 371: The multiprocess
ing
Pack
age PEP 3101: Advanced Str
ing
Formatt
ing
PEP 3105: print As a Function PEP 3110: Exception-Handl
ing
Changes PEP 3112: Byte Literals PEP 3116: New I/O Library PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax PEP 3129: Class Decorators PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers The fractions Module Other Language Changes Optimizations Interpreter Changes New and Improved Modules The ast module The future_builtins module The json module: JavaScript
Object
Notation The plistlib module: A Property-List Parser ctypes Enhancements Improved SSL Support Deprecations and Removals Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes: Windows Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X Port-Specific Changes: IRIX Port
ing
to Python 2.6 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.5 PEP 308: Conditional Expressions PEP 309: Partial Function Application PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software
Pack
ages v1.1 PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports PEP 338: Execut
ing
Modules as Scripts PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally PEP 342: New Generator Features PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement Writ
ing
Context Managers The contextlib module PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes PEP 353: Us
ing
ssize_t as the index type PEP 357: The ‘__index__’ method Other Language Changes Interactive Interpreter Changes Optimizations New, Improved, and Removed Modules The ctypes
pack
age The ElementTree
pack
age The hashlib
pack
age The sqlite3
pack
age The wsgiref
pack
age Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes Port
ing
to Python 2.5 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.4 PEP 218: Built-In Set
Object
s PEP 237: Unify
ing
Long Integers and Integers PEP 289: Generator Expressions PEP 292: Simpler Str
ing
Substitutions PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods PEP 322: Reverse Iteration PEP 324: New subprocess Module PEP 327: Decimal Data Type Why is Decimal needed? The Decimal type The Context type PEP 328: Multi-line Imports PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/Str
ing
Conversions Other Language Changes Optimizations New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules cookielib doctest Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes Port
ing
to Python 2.4 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.3 PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype PEP 255: Simple Generators PEP 263: Source Code Encod
ing
s PEP 273: Import
ing
Modules from ZIP Archives PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT PEP 278: Universal Newline Support PEP 279: enumerate() PEP 282: The logg
ing
Pack
age PEP 285: A Boolean Type PEP 293: Codec Error Handl
ing
Callbacks PEP 301:
Pack
age Index and Metadata for Distutils PEP 302: New Import Hooks PEP 305: Comma-separated Files PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements Extended Slices Other Language Changes Str
ing
Changes Optimizations New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules Date/Time Type The optparse Module Pymalloc: A Specialized
Object
Allocator Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes Other Changes and Fixes Port
ing
to Python 2.3 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.2 Introduction PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes Old and New Classes Descriptors Multiple Inheritance: The Diamond Rule Attribute Access Related Links PEP 234: Iterators PEP 255: Simple Generators PEP 237: Unify
ing
Long Integers and Integers PEP 238: Chang
ing
the Division Operator Unicode Changes PEP 227: Nested Scopes New and Improved Modules Interpreter Changes and Fixes Other Changes and Fixes Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.1 Introduction PEP 227: Nested Scopes PEP 236: __future__ Directives PEP 207: Rich Comparisons PEP 230: Warn
ing
Framework PEP 229: New Build System PEP 205: Weak References PEP 232: Function Attributes PEP 235: Import
ing
Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook PEP 208: New Coercion Model PEP 241: Metadata in Python
Pack
ages New and Improved Modules Other Changes and Fixes Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.0 Introduction What About Python 1.6? New Development Process Unicode List Comprehensions Augmented Assignment Str
ing
Methods Garbage Collection of Cycles Other Core Changes Minor Language Changes Changes to Built-in Functions Port
ing
to 2.0 Extend
ing
/Embedd
ing
Changes Distutils: Mak
ing
Modules Easy to Install XML Modules SAX2 Support DOM Support Relationship to PyXML Module changes New modules IDLE Improvements Deleted and Deprecated Modules Acknowledgements Changelog Python 3.6.5 final? Tests Build Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1? Security Core and Builtins Library Documentation Tests Build Windows macOS IDLE Tools/Demos C API Python 3.6.4 final? Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library Documentation Tests Build Windows macOS IDLE Tools/Demos C API Python 3.6.3 final? Library Build Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1? Security Core and Builtins Library Documentation Tests Build Windows IDLE Tools/Demos Python 3.6.2 final? Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2? Security Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library Security Library IDLE C API Build Documentation Tools/Demos Tests Windows Python 3.6.1 final? Core and Builtins Build Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Windows C API Documentation Tests Build Python 3.6.0 final? Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2? Core and Builtins Tools/Demos Windows Build Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library C API Documentation Tools/Demos Python 3.6.0 beta 4? Core and Builtins Library Documentation Tests Build Python 3.6.0 beta 3? Core and Builtins Library Windows Build Tests Python 3.6.0 beta 2? Core and Builtins Library Windows C API Build Tests Python 3.6.0 beta 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE C API Tests Build Tools/Demos Windows Python 3.6.0 alpha 4? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Tests Windows Build Python 3.6.0 alpha 3? Core and Builtins Library Security Library Security Library IDLE C API Build Tools/Demos Documentation Tests Python 3.6.0 alpha 2? Core and Builtins Library Security Library Security Library IDLE Documentation Tests Windows Build Windows C API Tools/Demos Python 3.6.0 alpha 1? Core and Builtins Library Security Library Security Library Security Library IDLE Documentation Tests Build Windows Tools/Demos C API Python 3.5.3 final? Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library Security Library Security Library IDLE C API Documentation Tests Tools/Demos Windows Build Python 3.5.2 final? Core and Builtins Tests IDLE Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Security Library Security Library Security Library Security Library Security Library IDLE Documentation Tests Build Windows Tools/Demos Windows Python 3.5.1 final? Core and Builtins Windows Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Documentation Tests Build Windows Tools/Demos Python 3.5.0 final? Build Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4? Library Build Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3? Core and Builtins Library Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2? Core and Builtins Library Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Documentation Tests Python 3.5.0 beta 4? Core and Builtins Library Build Python 3.5.0 beta 3? Core and Builtins Library Tests Documentation Build Python 3.5.0 beta 2? Core and Builtins Library Python 3.5.0 beta 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Tests Documentation Tools/Demos Python 3.5.0 alpha 4? Core and Builtins Library Build Tests Tools/Demos C API Python 3.5.0 alpha 3? Core and Builtins Library Build Tests Tools/Demos Python 3.5.0 alpha 2? Core and Builtins Library Build C API Windows Python 3.5.0 alpha 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Build C API Documentation Tests Tools/Demos Windows The Python Tutorial 1. Whett
ing
Your Appetite 2. Us
ing
the Python Interpreter 2.1. Invok
ing
the Interpreter 2.1.1. Argument Pass
ing
2.1.2. Interactive Mode 2.2. The Interpreter and Its Environment 2.2.1. Source Code Encod
ing
3. An Informal Introduction to Python 3.1. Us
ing
Python as a Calculator 3.1.1. Numbers 3.1.2. Str
ing
s 3.1.3. Lists 3.2. First Steps Towards Programm
ing
4. More Control Flow Tools 4.1. if Statements 4.2. for Statements 4.3. The range() Function 4.4. break and continue Statements, and else Clauses on Loops 4.5. pass Statements 4.6. Defin
ing
Functions 4.7. More on Defin
ing
Functions 4.7.1. Default Argument Values 4.7.2. Keyword Arguments 4.7.3. Arbitrary Argument Lists 4.7.4. Un
pack
ing
Argument Lists 4.7.5. Lambda Expressions 4.7.6. Documentation Str
ing
s 4.7.7. Function Annotations 4.8. Intermezzo: Cod
ing
Style 5. Data Structures 5.1. More on Lists 5.1.1. Us
ing
Lists as Stacks 5.1.2. Us
ing
Lists as Queues 5.1.3. List Comprehensions 5.1.4. Nested List Comprehensions 5.2. The del statement 5.3. Tuples and Sequences 5.4. Sets 5.5. Dictionaries 5.6. Loop
ing
Techniques 5.7. More on Conditions 5.8. Compar
ing
Sequences and Other Types 6. Modules 6.1. More on Modules 6.1.1. Execut
ing
modules as scripts 6.1.2. The Module Search Path 6.1.3. “Compiled” Python files 6.2. Standard Modules 6.3. The dir() Function 6.4.
Pack
ages 6.4.1. Import
ing
* From a
Pack
age 6.4.2. Intra-
pack
age References 6.4.3.
Pack
ages in Multiple Directories 7. Input and Output 7.1. Fancier Output Formatt
ing
7.1.1. Old str
ing
formatt
ing
7.2. Read
ing
and Writ
ing
Files 7.2.1. Methods of File
Object
s 7.2.2. Sav
ing
structured data with json 8. Errors and Exceptions 8.1. Syntax Errors 8.2. Exceptions 8.3. Handl
ing
Exceptions 8.4. Rais
ing
Exceptions 8.5. User-defined Exceptions 8.6. Defin
ing
Clean-up Actions 8.7. Predefined Clean-up Actions 9. Classes 9.1. A Word About Names and
Object
s 9.2. Python Scopes and Namespaces 9.2.1. Scopes and Namespaces Example 9.3. A First Look at Classes 9.3.1. Class Definition Syntax 9.3.2. Class
Object
s 9.3.3. Instance
Object
s 9.3.4. Method
Object
s 9.3.5. Class and Instance Variables 9.4. Random Remarks 9.5. Inheritance 9.5.1. Multiple Inheritance 9.6. Private Variables 9.7. Odds and Ends 9.8. Iterators 9.9. Generators 9.10. Generator Expressions 10. Brief Tour of the Standard Library 10.1. Operat
ing
System Interface 10.2. File Wildcards 10.3. Command Line Arguments 10.4. Error Output Redirection and Program Termination 10.5. Str
ing
Pattern Match
ing
10.6. Mathematics 10.7. Internet Access 10.8. Dates and Times 10.9. Data Compression 10.10. Performance Measurement 10.11. Quality Control 10.12. Batteries Included 11. Brief Tour of the Standard Library — Part II 11.1. Output Formatt
ing
11.2. Templat
ing
11.3. Work
ing
with Binary Data Record Layouts 11.4. Multi-thread
ing
11.5. Logg
ing
11.6. Weak References 11.7. Tools for Work
ing
with Lists 11.8. Decimal Float
ing
Point Arithmetic 12. Virtual Environments and
Pack
ages 12.1. Introduction 12.2. Creat
ing
Virtual Environments 12.3. Manag
ing
Pack
ages with pip 13. What Now? 14. Interactive Input Edit
ing
and History Substitution 14.1. Tab Completion and History Edit
ing
14.2. Alternatives to the Interactive Interpreter 15. Float
ing
Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations 15.1. Representation Error 16. Appendix 16.1. Interactive Mode 16.1.1. Error Handl
ing
16.1.2. Executable Python Scripts 16.1.3. The Interactive Startup File 16.1.4. The Customization Modules Python Setup and Usage 1. Command line and environment 1.1. Command line 1.1.1. Interface options 1.1.2. Generic options 1.1.3. Miscellaneous options 1.1.4. Options you shouldn’t use 1.2. Environment variables 1.2.1. Debug-mode variables 2. Us
ing
Python on Unix platforms 2.1. Gett
ing
and install
ing
the latest version of Python 2.1.1. On Linux 2.1.2. On FreeBSD and OpenBSD 2.1.3. On OpenSolaris 2.2. Build
ing
Python 2.3. Python-related paths and files 2.4. Miscellaneous 2.5. Editors and IDEs 3. Us
ing
Python on Windows 3.1. Install
ing
Python 3.1.1. Supported Versions 3.1.2. Installation Steps 3.1.3. Remov
ing
the MAX_PATH Limitation 3.1.4. Install
ing
Without UI 3.1.5. Install
ing
Without Download
ing
3.1.6. Modify
ing
an install 3.1.7. Other Platforms 3.2. Alternative bundles 3.3. Configur
ing
Python 3.3.1. Excursus: Sett
ing
environment variables 3.3.2. Find
ing
the Python executable 3.4. Python Launcher for Windows 3.4.1. Gett
ing
started 3.4.1.1. From the command-line 3.4.1.2. Virtual environments 3.4.1.3. From a script 3.4.1.4. From file associations 3.4.2. Shebang Lines 3.4.3. Arguments in shebang lines 3.4.4. Customization 3.4.4.1. Customization via INI files 3.4.4.2. Customiz
ing
default Python versions 3.4.5. Diagnostics 3.5. Find
ing
modules 3.6. Additional modules 3.6.1. PyWin32 3.6.2. cx_Freeze 3.6.3. WConio 3.7. Compil
ing
Python on Windows 3.8. Embedded Distribution 3.8.1. Python Application 3.8.2. Embedd
ing
Python 3.9. Other resources 4. Us
ing
Python on a Macintosh 4.1. Gett
ing
and Install
ing
MacPython 4.1.1. How to run a Python script 4.1.2. Runn
ing
scripts with a GUI 4.1.3. Configuration 4.2. The IDE 4.3. Install
ing
Additional Python
Pack
ages 4.4. GUI Programm
ing
on the Mac 4.5. Distribut
ing
Python Applications on the Mac 4.6. Other Resources The Python Language Reference 1. Introduction 1.1. Alternate Implementations 1.2. Notation 2. Lexical analysis 2.1. Line structure 2.1.1. Logical lines 2.1.2. Physical lines 2.1.3. Comments 2.1.4. Encod
ing
declarations 2.1.5. Explicit line join
ing
2.1.6. Implicit line join
ing
2.1.7. Blank lines 2.1.8. Indentation 2.1.9. Whitespace between tokens 2.2. Other tokens 2.3. Identifiers and keywords 2.3.1. Keywords 2.3.2. Reserved classes of identifiers 2.4. Literals 2.4.1. Str
ing
and Bytes literals 2.4.2. Str
ing
literal concatenation 2.4.3. Formatted str
ing
literals 2.4.4. Numeric literals 2.4.5. Integer literals 2.4.6. Float
ing
point literals 2.4.7. Imaginary literals 2.5. Operators 2.6. Delimiters 3. Data model 3.1.
Object
s, values and types 3.2. The standard type hierarchy 3.3. Special method names 3.3.1. Basic customization 3.3.2. Customiz
ing
attribute access 3.3.2.1. Customiz
ing
module attribute access 3.3.2.2. Implement
ing
Descriptors 3.3.2.3. Invok
ing
Descriptors 3.3.2.4. __slots__ 3.3.2.4.1. Notes on us
ing
__slots__ 3.3.3. Customiz
ing
class creation 3.3.3.1. Metaclasses 3.3.3.2. Determin
ing
the appropriate metaclass 3.3.3.3. Prepar
ing
the class namespace 3.3.3.4. Execut
ing
the class body 3.3.3.5. Creat
ing
the class
object
3.3.3.6. Metaclass example 3.3.4. Customiz
ing
instance and subclass checks 3.3.5. Emulat
ing
callable
object
s 3.3.6. Emulat
ing
container types 3.3.7. Emulat
ing
numeric types 3.3.8. With Statement Context Managers 3.3.9. Special method lookup 3.4. Coroutines 3.4.1. Awaitable
Object
s 3.4.2. Coroutine
Object
s 3.4.3. Asynchronous Iterators 3.4.4. Asynchronous Context Managers 4. Execution model 4.1. Structure of a program 4.2. Nam
ing
and bind
ing
4.2.1. Bind
ing
of names 4.2.2. Resolution of names 4.2.3. Builtins and restricted execution 4.2.4. Interaction with dynamic features 4.3. Exceptions 5. The import system 5.1. importlib 5.2.
Pack
ages 5.2.1. Regular
pack
ages 5.2.2. Namespace
pack
ages 5.3. Search
ing
5.3.1. The module cache 5.3.2. Finders and loaders 5.3.3. Import hooks 5.3.4. The meta path 5.4. Load
ing
5.4.1. Loaders 5.4.2. Submodules 5.4.3. Module spec 5.4.4. Import-related module attributes 5.4.5. module.__path__ 5.4.6. Module reprs 5.5. The Path Based Finder 5.5.1. Path entry finders 5.5.2. Path entry finder protocol 5.6. Replac
ing
the standard import system 5.7. Special considerations for __main__ 5.7.1. __main__.__spec__ 5.8. Open issues 5.9. References 6. Expressions 6.1. Arithmetic conversions 6.2. Atoms 6.2.1. Identifiers (Names) 6.2.2. Literals 6.2.3. Parenthesized forms 6.2.4. Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries 6.2.5. List displays 6.2.6. Set displays 6.2.7. Dictionary displays 6.2.8. Generator expressions 6.2.9. Yield expressions 6.2.9.1. Generator-iterator methods 6.2.9.2. Examples 6.2.9.3. Asynchronous generator functions 6.2.9.4. Asynchronous generator-iterator methods 6.3. Primaries 6.3.1. Attribute references 6.3.2. Subscriptions 6.3.3. Slic
ing
s 6.3.4. Calls 6.4. Await expression 6.5. The power operator 6.6. Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations 6.7. Binary arithmetic operations 6.8. Shift
ing
operations 6.9. Binary bitwise operations 6.10. Comparisons 6.10.1. Value comparisons 6.10.2. Membership test operations 6.10.3. Identity comparisons 6.11. Boolean operations 6.12. Conditional expressions 6.13. Lambdas 6.14. Expression lists 6.15. Evaluation order 6.16. Operator precedence 7. Simple statements 7.1. Expression statements 7.2. Assignment statements 7.2.1. Augmented assignment statements 7.2.2. Annotated assignment statements 7.3. The assert statement 7.4. The pass statement 7.5. The del statement 7.6. The return statement 7.7. The yield statement 7.8. The raise statement 7.9. The break statement 7.10. The continue statement 7.11. The import statement 7.11.1. Future statements 7.12. The global statement 7.13. The nonlocal statement 8. Compound statements 8.1. The if statement 8.2. The while statement 8.3. The for statement 8.4. The try statement 8.5. The with statement 8.6. Function definitions 8.7. Class definitions 8.8. Coroutines 8.8.1. Coroutine function definition 8.8.2. The async for statement 8.8.3. The async with statement 9. Top-level components 9.1. Complete Python programs 9.2. File input 9.3. Interactive input 9.4. Expression input 10. Full Grammar specification The Python Standard Library 1. Introduction 2. Built-in Functions 3. Built-in Constants 3.1. Constants added by the site module 4. Built-in Types 4.1. Truth Value Test
ing
4.2. Boolean Operations — and, or, not 4.3. Comparisons 4.4. Numeric Types — int, float, complex 4.4.1. Bitwise Operations on Integer Types 4.4.2. Additional Methods on Integer Types 4.4.3. Additional Methods on Float 4.4.4. Hash
ing
of numeric types 4.5. Iterator Types 4.5.1. Generator Types 4.6. Sequence Types — list, tuple, range 4.6.1. Common Sequence Operations 4.6.2. Immutable Sequence Types 4.6.3. Mutable Sequence Types 4.6.4. Lists 4.6.5. Tuples 4.6.6. Ranges 4.7. Text Sequence Type — str 4.7.1. Str
ing
Methods 4.7.2. printf-style Str
ing
Formatt
ing
4.8. Binary Sequence Types — bytes, bytearray, memoryview 4.8.1. Bytes
Object
s 4.8.2. Bytearray
Object
s 4.8.3. Bytes and Bytearray Operations 4.8.4. printf-style Bytes Formatt
ing
4.8.5. Memory Views 4.9. Set Types — set, frozenset 4.10. Mapp
ing
Types — dict 4.10.1. Dictionary view
object
s 4.11. Context Manager Types 4.12. Other Built-in Types 4.12.1. Modules 4.12.2. Classes and Class Instances 4.12.3. Functions 4.12.4. Methods 4.12.5. Code
Object
s 4.12.6. Type
Object
s 4.12.7. The Null
Object
4.12.8. The Ellipsis
Object
4.12.9. The NotImplemented
Object
4.12.10. Boolean Values 4.12.11. Internal
Object
s 4.13. Special Attributes 5. Built-in Exceptions 5.1. Base classes 5.2. Concrete exceptions 5.2.1. OS exceptions 5.3. Warn
ing
s 5.4. Exception hierarchy 6. Text Process
ing
Services 6.1. str
ing
— Common str
ing
operations 6.1.1. Str
ing
constants 6.1.2. Custom Str
ing
Formatt
ing
6.1.3. Format Str
ing
Syntax 6.1.3.1. Format Specification Mini-Language 6.1.3.2. Format examples 6.1.4. Template str
ing
s 6.1.5. Helper functions 6.2. re — Regular expression operations 6.2.1. Regular Expression Syntax 6.2.2. Module Contents 6.2.3. Regular Expression
Object
s 6.2.4. Match
Object
s 6.2.5. Regular Expression Examples 6.2.5.1. Check
ing
for a Pair 6.2.5.2. Simulat
ing
scanf() 6.2.5.3. search() vs. match() 6.2.5.4. Mak
ing
a Phonebook 6.2.5.5. Text Mung
ing
6.2.5.6. Find
ing
all Adverbs 6.2.5.7. Find
ing
all Adverbs and their Positions 6.2.5.8. Raw Str
ing
Notation 6.2.5.9. Writ
ing
a Tokenizer 6.3. difflib — Helpers for comput
ing
deltas 6.3.1. SequenceMatcher
Object
s 6.3.2. SequenceMatcher Examples 6.3.3. Differ
Object
s 6.3.4. Differ Example 6.3.5. A command-line interface to difflib 6.4. textwrap — Text wrapp
ing
and fill
ing
6.5. unicodedata — Unicode Database 6.6. str
ing
prep — Internet Str
ing
Preparation 6.7. readline — GNU readline interface 6.7.1. Init file 6.7.2. Line buffer 6.7.3. History file 6.7.4. History list 6.7.5. Startup hooks 6.7.6. Completion 6.7.7. Example 6.8. rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline 6.8.1. Completer
Object
s 7. Binary Data Services 7.1. struct — Interpret bytes as
pack
ed binary data 7.1.1. Functions and Exceptions 7.1.2. Format Str
ing
s 7.1.2.1. Byte Order, Size, and Alignment 7.1.2.2. Format Characters 7.1.2.3. Examples 7.1.3. Classes 7.2. codecs — Codec registry and base classes 7.2.1. Codec Base Classes 7.2.1.1. Error Handlers 7.2.1.2. Stateless Encod
ing
and Decod
ing
7.2.1.3. Incremental Encod
ing
and Decod
ing
7.2.1.3.1. IncrementalEncoder
Object
s 7.2.1.3.2. IncrementalDecoder
Object
s 7.2.1.4. Stream Encod
ing
and Decod
ing
7.2.1.4.1. StreamWriter
Object
s 7.2.1.4.2. StreamReader
Object
s 7.2.1.4.3. StreamReaderWriter
Object
s 7.2.1.4.4. StreamRecoder
Object
s 7.2.2. Encod
ing
s and Unicode 7.2.3. Standard Encod
ing
s 7.2.4. Python Specific Encod
ing
s 7.2.4.1. Text Encod
ing
s 7.2.4.2. Binary Transforms 7.2.4.3. Text Transforms 7.2.5. encod
ing
s.idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications 7.2.6. encod
ing
s.mbcs — Windows ANSI codepage 7.2.7. encod
ing
s.utf_8_sig — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature 8. Data Types 8.1. datetime — Basic date and time types 8.1.1. Available Types 8.1.2. timedelta
Object
s 8.1.3. date
Object
s 8.1.4. datetime
Object
s 8.1.5. time
Object
s 8.1.6. tzinfo
Object
s 8.1.7. timezone
Object
s 8.1.8. strftime() and strptime() Behavior 8.2. calendar — General calendar-related functions 8.3. collections — Container datatypes 8.3.1. ChainMap
object
s 8.3.1.1. ChainMap Examples and Recipes 8.3.2. Counter
object
s 8.3.3. deque
object
s 8.3.3.1. deque Recipes 8.3.4. defaultdict
object
s 8.3.4.1. defaultdict Examples 8.3.5. namedtuple() Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields 8.3.6. OrderedDict
object
s 8.3.6.1. OrderedDict Examples and Recipes 8.3.7. UserDict
object
s 8.3.8. UserList
object
s 8.3.9. UserStr
ing
object
s 8.4. collections.abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers 8.4.1. Collections Abstract Base Classes 8.5. heapq — Heap queue algorithm 8.5.1. Basic Examples 8.5.2. Priority Queue Implementation Notes 8.5.3. Theory 8.6. bisect — Array bisection algorithm 8.6.1. Search
ing
Sorted Lists 8.6.2. Other Examples 8.7. array — Efficient arrays of numeric values 8.8. weakref — Weak references 8.8.1. Weak Reference
Object
s 8.8.2. Example 8.8.3. Finalizer
Object
s 8.8.4. Compar
ing
finalizers with __del__() methods 8.9. types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types 8.9.1. Dynamic Type Creation 8.9.2. Standard Interpreter Types 8.9.3. Additional Utility Classes and Functions 8.9.4. Coroutine Utility Functions 8.10. copy — Shallow and deep copy operations 8.11. pprint — Data pretty printer 8.11.1. PrettyPrinter
Object
s 8.11.2. Example 8.12. reprlib — Alternate repr() implementation 8.12.1. Repr
Object
s 8.12.2. Subclass
ing
Repr
Object
s 8.13. enum — Support for enumerations 8.13.1. Module Contents 8.13.2. Creat
ing
an Enum 8.13.3. Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes 8.13.4. Duplicat
ing
enum members and values 8.13.5. Ensur
ing
unique enumeration values 8.13.6. Us
ing
automatic values 8.13.7. Iteration 8.13.8. Comparisons 8.13.9. Allowed members and attributes of enumerations 8.13.10. Restricted subclass
ing
of enumerations 8.13.11. Pickl
ing
8.13.12. Functional API 8.13.13. Derived Enumerations 8.13.13.1. IntEnum 8.13.13.2. IntFlag 8.13.13.3. Flag 8.13.13.4. Others 8.13.14. Interest
ing
examples 8.13.14.1. Omitt
ing
values 8.13.14.1.1. Us
ing
auto 8.13.14.1.2. Us
ing
object
8.13.14.1.3. Us
ing
a descriptive str
ing
8.13.14.1.4. Us
ing
a custom __new__() 8.13.14.2. OrderedEnum 8.13.14.3. DuplicateFreeEnum 8.13.14.4. Planet 8.13.15. How are Enums different? 8.13.15.1. Enum Classes 8.13.15.2. Enum Members (aka instances) 8.13.15.3. Finer Points 8.13.15.3.1. Supported __dunder__ names 8.13.15.3.2. Supported _sunder_ names 8.13.15.3.3. Enum member type 8.13.15.3.4. Boolean value of Enum classes and members 8.13.15.3.5. Enum classes with methods 8.13.15.3.6. Combin
ing
members of Flag 9. Numeric and Mathematical Modules 9.1. numbers — Numeric abstract base classes 9.1.1. The numeric tower 9.1.2. Notes for type implementors 9.1.2.1. Add
ing
More Numeric ABCs 9.1.2.2. Implement
ing
the arithmetic operations 9.2. math — Mathematical functions 9.2.1. Number-theoretic and representation functions 9.2.2. Power and logarithmic functions 9.2.3. Trigonometric functions 9.2.4. Angular conversion 9.2.5. Hyperbolic functions 9.2.6. Special functions 9.2.7. Constants 9.3. cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers 9.3.1. Conversions to and from polar coordinates 9.3.2. Power and logarithmic functions 9.3.3. Trigonometric functions 9.3.4. Hyperbolic functions 9.3.5. Classification functions 9.3.6. Constants 9.4. decimal — Decimal fixed point and float
ing
point arithmetic 9.4.1. Quick-start Tutorial 9.4.2. Decimal
object
s 9.4.2.1. Logical operands 9.4.3. Context
object
s 9.4.4. Constants 9.4.5. Round
ing
modes 9.4.6. Signals 9.4.7. Float
ing
Point Notes 9.4.7.1. Mitigat
ing
round-off error with increased precision 9.4.7.2. Special values 9.4.8. Work
ing
with threads 9.4.9. Recipes 9.4.10. Decimal FAQ 9.5. fractions — Rational numbers 9.6. random — Generate pseudo-random numbers 9.6.1. Bookkeep
ing
functions 9.6.2. Functions for integers 9.6.3. Functions for sequences 9.6.4. Real-valued distributions 9.6.5. Alternative Generator 9.6.6. Notes on Reproducibility 9.6.7. Examples and Recipes 9.7. statistics — Mathematical statistics functions 9.7.1. Averages and measures of central location 9.7.2. Measures of spread 9.7.3. Function details 9.7.4. Exceptions 10. Functional Programm
ing
Modules 10.1. itertools — Functions creat
ing
iterators for efficient loop
ing
10.1.1. Itertool functions 10.1.2. Itertools Recipes 10.2. functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable
object
s 10.2.1. partial
Object
s 10.3. operator — Standard operators as functions 10.3.1. Mapp
ing
Operators to Functions 10.3.2. Inplace Operators 11. File and Directory Access 11.1. pathlib —
Object
-oriented filesystem paths 11.1.1. Basic use 11.1.2. Pure paths 11.1.2.1. General properties 11.1.2.2. Operators 11.1.2.3. Access
ing
individual parts 11.1.2.4. Methods and properties 11.1.3. Concrete paths 11.1.3.1. Methods 11.2. os.path — Common pathname manipulations 11.3. fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams 11.4. stat — Interpret
ing
stat() results 11.5. filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons 11.5.1. The dircmp class 11.6. tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories 11.6.1. Examples 11.6.2. Deprecated functions and variables 11.7. glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion 11.8. fnmatch — Unix filename pattern match
ing
11.9. linecache — Random access to text lines 11.10. shutil — High-level file operations 11.10.1. Directory and files operations 11.10.1.1. copytree example 11.10.1.2. rmtree example 11.10.2. Archiv
ing
operations 11.10.2.1. Archiv
ing
example 11.10.3. Query
ing
the size of the output terminal 11.11. macpath — Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions 12. Data Persistence 12.1. pickle — Python
object
serialization 12.1.1. Relationship to other Python modules 12.1.1.1. Comparison with marshal 12.1.1.2. Comparison with json 12.1.2. Data stream format 12.1.3. Module Interface 12.1.4. What can be pickled and unpickled? 12.1.5. Pickl
ing
Class Instances 12.1.5.1. Persistence of External
Object
s 12.1.5.2. Dispatch Tables 12.1.5.3. Handl
ing
Stateful
Object
s 12.1.6. Restrict
ing
Globals 12.1.7. Performance 12.1.8. Examples 12.2. copyreg — Register pickle support functions 12.2.1. Example 12.3. shelve — Python
object
persistence 12.3.1. Restrictions 12.3.2. Example 12.4. marshal — Internal Python
object
serialization 12.5. dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases” 12.5.1. dbm.gnu — GNU’s reinterpretation of dbm 12.5.2. dbm.ndbm — Interface based on ndbm 12.5.3. dbm.dumb — Portable DBM implementation 12.6. sqlite3 — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases 12.6.1. Module functions and constants 12.6.2. Connection
Object
s 12.6.3. Cursor
Object
s 12.6.4. Row
Object
s 12.6.5. Exceptions 12.6.6. SQLite and Python types 12.6.6.1. Introduction 12.6.6.2. Us
ing
adapters to store additional Python types in SQLite databases 12.6.6.2.1. Lett
ing
your
object
adapt itself 12.6.6.2.2. Register
ing
an adapter callable 12.6.6.3. Convert
ing
SQLite values to custom Python types 12.6.6.4. Default adapters and converters 12.6.7. Controll
ing
Transactions 12.6.8. Us
ing
sqlite3 efficiently 12.6.8.1. Us
ing
shortcut methods 12.6.8.2. Access
ing
columns by name instead of by index 12.6.8.3. Us
ing
the connection as a context manager 12.6.9. Common issues 12.6.9.1. Multithread
ing
13. Data Compression and Archiv
ing
13.1. zlib — Compression compatible with gzip 13.2. gzip — Support for gzip files 13.2.1. Examples of usage 13.3. bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression 13.3.1. (De)compression of files 13.3.2. Incremental (de)compression 13.3.3. One-shot (de)compression 13.4. lzma — Compression us
ing
the LZMA algorithm 13.4.1. Read
ing
and writ
ing
compressed files 13.4.2. Compress
ing
and decompress
ing
data in memory 13.4.3. Miscellaneous 13.4.4. Specify
ing
custom filter chains 13.4.5. Examples 13.5. zipfile — Work with ZIP archives 13.5.1. ZipFile
Object
s 13.5.2. PyZipFile
Object
s 13.5.3. ZipInfo
Object
s 13.5.4. Command-Line Interface 13.5.4.1. Command-line options 13.6. tarfile — Read and write tar archive files 13.6.1. TarFile
Object
s 13.6.2. TarInfo
Object
s 13.6.3. Command-Line Interface 13.6.3.1. Command-line options 13.6.4. Examples 13.6.5. Supported tar formats 13.6.6. Unicode issues 14. File Formats 14.1. csv — CSV File Read
ing
and Writ
ing
14.1.1. Module Contents 14.1.2. Dialects and Formatt
ing
Parameters 14.1.3. Reader
Object
s 14.1.4. Writer
Object
s 14.1.5. Examples 14.2. configparser — Configuration file parser 14.2.1. Quick Start 14.2.2. Supported Datatypes 14.2.3. Fallback Values 14.2.4. Supported INI File Structure 14.2.5. Interpolation of values 14.2.6. Mapp
ing
Protocol Access 14.2.7. Customiz
ing
Parser Behaviour 14.2.8. Legacy API Examples 14.2.9. ConfigParser
Object
s 14.2.10. RawConfigParser
Object
s 14.2.11. Exceptions 14.3. netrc — netrc file process
ing
14.3.1. netrc
Object
s 14.4. xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data 14.4.1.
Pack
er
Object
s 14.4.2. Un
pack
er
Object
s 14.4.3. Exceptions 14.5. plistlib — Generate and parse Mac OS X .plist files 14.5.1. Examples 15. Cryptographic Services 15.1. hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests 15.1.1. Hash algorithms 15.1.2. SHAKE variable length digests 15.1.3. Key derivation 15.1.4. BLAKE2 15.1.4.1. Creat
ing
hash
object
s 15.1.4.2. Constants 15.1.4.3. Examples 15.1.4.3.1. Simple hash
ing
15.1.4.3.2. Us
ing
different digest sizes 15.1.4.3.3. Keyed hash
ing
15.1.4.3.4. Randomized hash
ing
15.1.4.3.5. Personalization 15.1.4.3.6. Tree mode 15.1.4.4. Credits 15.2. hmac — Keyed-Hash
ing
for Message Authentication 15.3. secrets — Generate secure random numbers for manag
ing
secrets 15.3.1. Random numbers 15.3.2. Generat
ing
tokens 15.3.2.1. How many bytes should tokens use? 15.3.3. Other functions 15.3.4. Recipes and best practices 16. Generic Operat
ing
System Services 16.1. os — Miscellaneous operat
ing
system interfaces 16.1.1. File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment Variables 16.1.2. Process Parameters 16.1.3. File
Object
Creation 16.1.4. File Descriptor Operations 16.1.4.1. Query
ing
the size of a terminal 16.1.4.2. Inheritance of File Descriptors 16.1.5. Files and Directories 16.1.5.1. Linux extended attributes 16.1.6. Process Management 16.1.7. Interface to the scheduler 16.1.8. Miscellaneous System Information 16.1.9. Random numbers 16.2. io — Core tools for work
ing
with streams 16.2.1. Overview 16.2.1.1. Text I/O 16.2.1.2. Binary I/O 16.2.1.3. Raw I/O 16.2.2. High-level Module Interface 16.2.2.1. In-memory streams 16.2.3. Class hierarchy 16.2.3.1. I/O Base Classes 16.2.3.2. Raw File I/O 16.2.3.3. Buffered Streams 16.2.3.4. Text I/O 16.2.4. Performance 16.2.4.1. Binary I/O 16.2.4.2. Text I/O 16.2.4.3. Multi-thread
ing
16.2.4.4. Reentrancy 16.3. time — Time access and conversions 16.3.1. Functions 16.3.2. Clock ID Constants 16.3.3. Timezone Constants 16.4. argparse — Parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commands 16.4.1. Example 16.4.1.1. Creat
ing
a parser 16.4.1.2. Add
ing
arguments 16.4.1.3. Pars
ing
arguments 16.4.2. ArgumentParser
object
s 16.4.2.1. prog 16.4.2.2. usage 16.4.2.3. description 16.4.2.4. epilog 16.4.2.5. parents 16.4.2.6. formatter_class 16.4.2.7. prefix_chars 16.4.2.8. fromfile_prefix_chars 16.4.2.9. argument_default 16.4.2.10. allow_abbrev 16.4.2.11. conflict_handler 16.4.2.12. add_help 16.4.3. The add_argument() method 16.4.3.1. name or flags 16.4.3.2. action 16.4.3.3. nargs 16.4.3.4. const 16.4.3.5. default 16.4.3.6. type 16.4.3.7. choices 16.4.3.8. required 16.4.3.9. help 16.4.3.10. metavar 16.4.3.11. dest 16.4.3.12. Action classes 16.4.4. The parse_args() method 16.4.4.1. Option value syntax 16.4.4.2. Invalid arguments 16.4.4.3. Arguments contain
ing
- 16.4.4.4. Argument abbreviations (prefix match
ing
) 16.4.4.5. Beyond sys.argv 16.4.4.6. The Namespace
object
16.4.5. Other utilities 16.4.5.1. Sub-commands 16.4.5.2. FileType
object
s 16.4.5.3. Argument groups 16.4.5.4. Mutual exclusion 16.4.5.5. Parser defaults 16.4.5.6. Print
ing
help 16.4.5.7. Partial pars
ing
16.4.5.8. Customiz
ing
file pars
ing
16.4.5.9. Exit
ing
methods 16.4.6. Upgrad
ing
optparse code 16.5. getopt — C-style parser for command line options 16.6. logg
ing
— Logg
ing
facility for Python 16.6.1. Logger
Object
s 16.6.2. Logg
ing
Levels 16.6.3. Handler
Object
s 16.6.4. Formatter
Object
s 16.6.5. Filter
Object
s 16.6.6. LogRecord
Object
s 16.6.7. LogRecord attributes 16.6.8. LoggerAdapter
Object
s 16.6.9. Thread Safety 16.6.10. Module-Level Functions 16.6.11. Module-Level Attributes 16.6.12. Integration with the warn
ing
s module 16.7. logg
ing
.config — Logg
ing
configuration 16.7.1. Configuration functions 16.7.2. Configuration dictionary schema 16.7.2.1. Dictionary Schema Details 16.7.2.2. Incremental Configuration 16.7.2.3.
Object
connections 16.7.2.4. User-defined
object
s 16.7.2.5. Access to external
object
s 16.7.2.6. Access to internal
object
s 16.7.2.7. Import resolution and custom importers 16.7.3. Configuration file format 16.8. logg
ing
.handlers — Logg
ing
handlers 16.8.1. StreamHandler 16.8.2. FileHandler 16.8.3. NullHandler 16.8.4. WatchedFileHandler 16.8.5. BaseRotat
ing
Handler 16.8.6. Rotat
ing
FileHandler 16.8.7. TimedRotat
ing
FileHandler 16.8.8. SocketHandler 16.8.9. DatagramHandler 16.8.10. SysLogHandler 16.8.11. NTEventLogHandler 16.8.12. SMTPHandler 16.8.13. MemoryHandler 16.8.14. HTTPHandler 16.8.15. QueueHandler 16.8.16. QueueListener 16.9. getpass — Portable password input 16.10. curses — Terminal handl
ing
for character-cell displays 16.10.1. Functions 16.10.2. Window
Object
s 16.10.3. Constants 16.11. curses.textpad — Text input widget for curses programs 16.11.1. Textbox
object
s 16.12. curses.ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters 16.13. curses.panel — A panel stack extension for curses 16.13.1. Functions 16.13.2. Panel
Object
s 16.14. platform — Access to underly
ing
platform’s identify
ing
data 16.14.1. Cross Platform 16.14.2. Java Platform 16.14.3. Windows Platform 16.14.3.1. Win95/98 specific 16.14.4. Mac OS Platform 16.14.5. Unix Platforms 16.15. errno — Standard errno system symbols 16.16. ctypes — A foreign function library for Python 16.16.1. ctypes tutorial 16.16.1.1. Load
ing
dynamic link libraries 16.16.1.2. Access
ing
functions from loaded dlls 16.16.1.3. Call
ing
functions 16.16.1.4. Fundamental data types 16.16.1.5. Call
ing
functions, continued 16.16.1.6. Call
ing
functions with your own custom data types 16.16.1.7. Specify
ing
the required argument types (function prototypes) 16.16.1.8. Return types 16.16.1.9. Pass
ing
pointers (or: pass
ing
parameters by reference) 16.16.1.10. Structures and unions 16.16.1.11. Structure/union alignment and byte order 16.16.1.12. Bit fields in structures and unions 16.16.1.13. Arrays 16.16.1.14. Pointers 16.16.1.15. Type conversions 16.16.1.16. Incomplete Types 16.16.1.17. Callback functions 16.16.1.18. Access
ing
values exported from dlls 16.16.1.19. Surprises 16.16.1.20. Variable-sized data types 16.16.2. ctypes reference 16.16.2.1. Find
ing
shared libraries 16.16.2.2. Load
ing
shared libraries 16.16.2.3. Foreign functions 16.16.2.4. Function prototypes 16.16.2.5. Utility functions 16.16.2.6. Data types 16.16.2.7. Fundamental data types 16.16.2.8. Structured data types 16.16.2.9. Arrays and pointers 17. Concurrent Execution 17.1. thread
ing
— Thread-based parallelism 17.1.1. Thread-Local Data 17.1.2. Thread
Object
s 17.1.3. Lock
Object
s 17.1.4. RLock
Object
s 17.1.5. Condition
Object
s 17.1.6. Semaphore
Object
s 17.1.6.1. Semaphore Example 17.1.7. Event
Object
s 17.1.8. Timer
Object
s 17.1.9. Barrier
Object
s 17.1.10. Us
ing
locks, conditions, and semaphores in the with statement 17.2. multiprocess
ing
— Process-based parallelism 17.2.1. Introduction 17.2.1.1. The Process class 17.2.1.2. Contexts and start methods 17.2.1.3. Exchang
ing
object
s between processes 17.2.1.4. Synchronization between processes 17.2.1.5. Shar
ing
state between processes 17.2.1.6. Us
ing
a pool of workers 17.2.2. Reference 17.2.2.1. Process and exceptions 17.2.2.2. Pipes and Queues 17.2.2.3. Miscellaneous 17.2.2.4. Connection
Object
s 17.2.2.5. Synchronization primitives 17.2.2.6. Shared ctypes
Object
s 17.2.2.6.1. The multiprocess
ing
.sharedctypes module 17.2.2.7. Managers 17.2.2.7.1. Customized managers 17.2.2.7.2. Us
ing
a remote manager 17.2.2.8. Proxy
Object
s 17.2.2.8.1. Cleanup 17.2.2.9. Process Pools 17.2.2.10. Listeners and Clients 17.2.2.10.1. Address Formats 17.2.2.11. Authentication keys 17.2.2.12. Logg
ing
17.2.2.13. The multiprocess
ing
.dummy module 17.2.3. Programm
ing
guidelines 17.2.3.1. All start methods 17.2.3.2. The spawn and forkserver start methods 17.2.4. Examples 17.3. The concurrent
pack
age 17.4. concurrent.futures — Launch
ing
parallel tasks 17.4.1. Executor
Object
s 17.4.2. ThreadPoolExecutor 17.4.2.1. ThreadPoolExecutor Example 17.4.3. ProcessPoolExecutor 17.4.3.1. ProcessPoolExecutor Example 17.4.4. Future
Object
s 17.4.5. Module Functions 17.4.6. Exception classes 17.5. subprocess — Subprocess management 17.5.1. Us
ing
the subprocess Module 17.5.1.1. Frequently Used Arguments 17.5.1.2. Popen Constructor 17.5.1.3. Exceptions 17.5.2. Security Considerations 17.5.3. Popen
Object
s 17.5.4. Windows Popen Helpers 17.5.4.1. Constants 17.5.5. Older high-level API 17.5.6. Replac
ing
Older Functions with the subprocess Module 17.5.6.1. Replac
ing
/bin/sh shell backquote 17.5.6.2. Replac
ing
shell pipeline 17.5.6.3. Replac
ing
os.system() 17.5.6.4. Replac
ing
the os.spawn family 17.5.6.5. Replac
ing
os.popen(), os.popen2(), os.popen3() 17.5.6.6. Replac
ing
functions from the popen2 module 17.5.7. Legacy Shell Invocation Functions 17.5.8. Notes 17.5.8.1. Convert
ing
an argument sequence to a str
ing
on Windows 17.6. sched — Event scheduler 17.6.1. Scheduler
Object
s 17.7. queue — A synchronized queue class 17.7.1. Queue
Object
s 17.8. dummy_thread
ing
— Drop-in replacement for the thread
ing
module 17.9. _thread — Low-level thread
ing
API 17.10. _dummy_thread — Drop-in replacement for the _thread module 18. Interprocess Communication and Network
ing
18.1. socket — Low-level network
ing
interface 18.1.1. Socket families 18.1.2. Module contents 18.1.2.1. Exceptions 18.1.2.2. Constants 18.1.2.3. Functions 18.1.2.3.1. Creat
ing
sockets 18.1.2.3.2. Other functions 18.1.3. Socket
Object
s 18.1.4. Notes on socket timeouts 18.1.4.1. Timeouts and the connect method 18.1.4.2. Timeouts and the accept method 18.1.5. Example 18.2. ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket
object
s 18.2.1. Functions, Constants, and Exceptions 18.2.1.1. Socket creation 18.2.1.2. Context creation 18.2.1.3. Random generation 18.2.1.4. Certificate handl
ing
18.2.1.5. Constants 18.2.2. SSL Sockets 18.2.3. SSL Contexts 18.2.4. Certificates 18.2.4.1. Certificate chains 18.2.4.2. CA certificates 18.2.4.3. Combined key and certificate 18.2.4.4. Self-signed certificates 18.2.5. Examples 18.2.5.1. Test
ing
for SSL support 18.2.5.2. Client-side operation 18.2.5.3. Server-side operation 18.2.6. Notes on non-block
ing
sockets 18.2.7. Memory BIO Support 18.2.8. SSL session 18.2.9. Security considerations 18.2.9.1. Best defaults 18.2.9.2. Manual sett
ing
s 18.2.9.2.1. Verify
ing
certificates 18.2.9.2.2. Protocol versions 18.2.9.2.3. Cipher selection 18.2.9.3. Multi-process
ing
18.2.10. LibreSSL support 18.3. select — Wait
ing
for I/O completion 18.3.1. /dev/poll Poll
ing
Object
s 18.3.2. Edge and Level Trigger Poll
ing
(epoll)
Object
s 18.3.3. Poll
ing
Object
s 18.3.4. Kqueue
Object
s 18.3.5. Kevent
Object
s 18.4. selectors — High-level I/O multiplex
ing
18.4.1. Introduction 18.4.2. Classes 18.4.3. Examples 18.5. asyncio — Asynchronous I/O, event loop, coroutines and tasks 18.5.1. Base Event Loop 18.5.1.1. Run an event loop 18.5.1.2. Calls 18.5.1.3. Delayed calls 18.5.1.4. Futures 18.5.1.5. Tasks 18.5.1.6. Creat
ing
connections 18.5.1.7. Creat
ing
listen
ing
connections 18.5.1.8. Watch file descriptors 18.5.1.9. Low-level socket operations 18.5.1.10. Resolve host name 18.5.1.11. Connect pipes 18.5.1.12. UNIX signals 18.5.1.13. Executor 18.5.1.14. Error Handl
ing
API 18.5.1.15. Debug mode 18.5.1.16. Server 18.5.1.17. Handle 18.5.1.18. Event loop examples 18.5.1.18.1. Hello World with call_soon() 18.5.1.18.2. Display the current date with call_later() 18.5.1.18.3. Watch a file descriptor for read events 18.5.1.18.4. Set signal handlers for SIGINT and SIGTERM 18.5.2. Event loops 18.5.2.1. Event loop functions 18.5.2.2. Available event loops 18.5.2.3. Platform support 18.5.2.3.1. Windows 18.5.2.3.2. Mac OS X 18.5.2.4. Event loop policies and the default policy 18.5.2.5. Event loop policy interface 18.5.2.6. Access to the global loop policy 18.5.2.7. Customiz
ing
the event loop policy 18.5.3. Tasks and coroutines 18.5.3.1. Coroutines 18.5.3.1.1. Example: Hello World coroutine 18.5.3.1.2. Example: Coroutine display
ing
the current date 18.5.3.1.3. Example: Chain coroutines 18.5.3.2. InvalidStateError 18.5.3.3. TimeoutError 18.5.3.4. Future 18.5.3.4.1. Example: Future with run_until_complete() 18.5.3.4.2. Example: Future with run_forever() 18.5.3.5. Task 18.5.3.5.1. Example: Parallel execution of tasks 18.5.3.6. Task functions 18.5.4. Transports and protocols (callback based API) 18.5.4.1. Transports 18.5.4.1.1. BaseTransport 18.5.4.1.2. ReadTransport 18.5.4.1.3. WriteTransport 18.5.4.1.4. DatagramTransport 18.5.4.1.5. BaseSubprocessTransport 18.5.4.2. Protocols 18.5.4.2.1. Protocol classes 18.5.4.2.2. Connection callbacks 18.5.4.2.3. Stream
ing
protocols 18.5.4.2.4. Datagram protocols 18.5.4.2.5. Flow control callbacks 18.5.4.2.6. Coroutines and protocols 18.5.4.3. Protocol examples 18.5.4.3.1. TCP echo client protocol 18.5.4.3.2. TCP echo server protocol 18.5.4.3.3. UDP echo client protocol 18.5.4.3.4. UDP echo server protocol 18.5.4.3.5. Register an open socket to wait for data us
ing
a protocol 18.5.5. Streams (coroutine based API) 18.5.5.1. Stream functions 18.5.5.2. StreamReader 18.5.5.3. StreamWriter 18.5.5.4. StreamReaderProtocol 18.5.5.5. IncompleteReadError 18.5.5.6. LimitOverrunError 18.5.5.7. Stream examples 18.5.5.7.1. TCP echo client us
ing
streams 18.5.5.7.2. TCP echo server us
ing
streams 18.5.5.7.3. Get HTTP headers 18.5.5.7.4. Register an open socket to wait for data us
ing
streams 18.5.6. Subprocess 18.5.6.1. Windows event loop 18.5.6.2. Create a subprocess: high-level API us
ing
Process 18.5.6.3. Create a subprocess: low-level API us
ing
subprocess.Popen 18.5.6.4. Constants 18.5.6.5. Process 18.5.6.6. Subprocess and threads 18.5.6.7. Subprocess examples 18.5.6.7.1. Subprocess us
ing
transport and protocol 18.5.6.7.2. Subprocess us
ing
streams 18.5.7. Synchronization primitives 18.5.7.1. Locks 18.5.7.1.1. Lock 18.5.7.1.2. Event 18.5.7.1.3. Condition 18.5.7.2. Semaphores 18.5.7.2.1. Semaphore 18.5.7.2.2. BoundedSemaphore 18.5.8. Queues 18.5.8.1. Queue 18.5.8.2. PriorityQueue 18.5.8.3. LifoQueue 18.5.8.3.1. Exceptions 18.5.9. Develop with asyncio 18.5.9.1. Debug mode of asyncio 18.5.9.2. Cancellation 18.5.9.3. Concurrency and multithread
ing
18.5.9.4. Handle block
ing
functions correctly 18.5.9.5. Logg
ing
18.5.9.6. Detect coroutine
object
s never scheduled 18.5.9.7. Detect exceptions never consumed 18.5.9.8. Chain coroutines correctly 18.5.9.9. Pend
ing
task destroyed 18.5.9.10. Close transports and event loops 18.6. asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler 18.6.1. asyncore Example basic HTTP client 18.6.2. asyncore Example basic echo server 18.7. asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler 18.7.1. asynchat Example 18.8. signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events 18.8.1. General rules 18.8.1.1. Execution of Python signal handlers 18.8.1.2. Signals and threads 18.8.2. Module contents 18.8.3. Example 18.9. mmap — Memory-mapped file support 19. Internet Data Handl
ing
19.1. email — An email and MIME handl
ing
pack
age 19.1.1. email.message: Represent
ing
an email message 19.1.2. email.parser: Pars
ing
email messages 19.1.2.1. FeedParser API 19.1.2.2. Parser API 19.1.2.3. Additional notes 19.1.3. email.generator: Generat
ing
MIME documents 19.1.4. email.policy: Policy
Object
s 19.1.5. email.errors: Exception and Defect classes 19.1.6. email.headerregistry: Custom Header
Object
s 19.1.7. email.contentmanager: Manag
ing
MIME Content 19.1.7.1. Content Manager Instances 19.1.8. email: Examples 19.1.9. email.message.Message: Represent
ing
an email message us
ing
the compat32 API 19.1.10. email.mime: Creat
ing
email and MIME
object
s from scratch 19.1.11. email.header: Internationalized headers 19.1.12. email.charset: Represent
ing
character sets 19.1.13. email.encoders: Encoders 19.1.14. email.utils: Miscellaneous utilities 19.1.15. email.iterators: Iterators 19.2. json — JSON encoder and decoder 19.2.1. Basic Usage 19.2.2. Encoders and Decoders 19.2.3. Exceptions 19.2.4. Standard Compliance and Interoperability 19.2.4.1. Character Encod
ing
s 19.2.4.2. Infinite and NaN Number Values 19.2.4.3. Repeated Names Within an
Object
19.2.4.4. Top-level Non-
Object
, Non-Array Values 19.2.4.5. Implementation Limitations 19.2.5. Command Line Interface 19.2.5.1. Command line options 19.3. mailcap — Mailcap file handl
ing
19.4. mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats 19.4.1. Mailbox
object
s 19.4.1.1. Maildir 19.4.1.2. mbox 19.4.1.3. MH 19.4.1.4. Babyl 19.4.1.5. MMDF 19.4.2. Message
object
s 19.4.2.1. MaildirMessage 19.4.2.2. mboxMessage 19.4.2.3. MHMessage 19.4.2.4. BabylMessage 19.4.2.5. MMDFMessage 19.4.3. Exceptions 19.4.4. Examples 19.5. mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types 19.5.1. MimeTypes
Object
s 19.6. base64 — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encod
ing
s 19.7. binhex — Encode and decode binhex4 files 19.7.1. Notes 19.8. binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII 19.9. quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data 19.10. uu — Encode and decode uuencode files 20. Structured Markup Process
ing
Tools 20.1. html — HyperText Markup Language support 20.2. html.parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser 20.2.1. Example HTML Parser Application 20.2.2. HTMLParser Methods 20.2.3. Examples 20.3. html.entities — Definitions of HTML general entities 20.4. XML Process
ing
Modules 20.4.1. XML vulnerabilities 20.4.2. The defusedxml and defusedexpat
Pack
ages 20.5. xml.etree.ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API 20.5.1. Tutorial 20.5.1.1. XML tree and elements 20.5.1.2. Pars
ing
XML 20.5.1.3.
Pull
API for non-block
ing
pars
ing
20.5.1.4. Find
ing
interest
ing
elements 20.5.1.5. Modify
ing
an XML File 20.5.1.6. Build
ing
XML documents 20.5.1.7. Pars
ing
XML with Namespaces 20.5.1.8. Additional resources 20.5.2. XPath support 20.5.2.1. Example 20.5.2.2. Supported XPath syntax 20.5.3. Reference 20.5.3.1. Functions 20.5.3.2. Element
Object
s 20.5.3.3. ElementTree
Object
s 20.5.3.4. QName
Object
s 20.5.3.5. TreeBuilder
Object
s 20.5.3.6. XMLParser
Object
s 20.5.3.7. XML
Pull
Parser
Object
s 20.5.3.8. Exceptions 20.6. xml.dom — The Document
Object
Model API 20.6.1. Module Contents 20.6.2.
Object
s in the DOM 20.6.2.1. DOMImplementation
Object
s 20.6.2.2. Node
Object
s 20.6.2.3. NodeList
Object
s 20.6.2.4. DocumentType
Object
s 20.6.2.5. Document
Object
s 20.6.2.6. Element
Object
s 20.6.2.7. Attr
Object
s 20.6.2.8. NamedNodeMap
Object
s 20.6.2.9. Comment
Object
s 20.6.2.10. Text and CDATASection
Object
s 20.6.2.11. Process
ing
Instruction
Object
s 20.6.2.12. Exceptions 20.6.3. Conformance 20.6.3.1. Type Mapp
ing
20.6.3.2. Accessor Methods 20.7. xml.dom.minidom — Minimal DOM implementation 20.7.1. DOM
Object
s 20.7.2. DOM Example 20.7.3. minidom and the DOM standard 20.8. xml.dom.
pull
dom — Support for build
ing
partial DOM trees 20.8.1. DOMEventStream
Object
s 20.9. xml.sax — Support for SAX2 parsers 20.9.1. SAXException
Object
s 20.10. xml.sax.handler — Base classes for SAX handlers 20.10.1. ContentHandler
Object
s 20.10.2. DTDHandler
Object
s 20.10.3. EntityResolver
Object
s 20.10.4. ErrorHandler
Object
s 20.11. xml.sax.saxutils — SAX Utilities 20.12. xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers 20.12.1. XMLReader
Object
s 20.12.2. IncrementalParser
Object
s 20.12.3. Locator
Object
s 20.12.4. InputSource
Object
s 20.12.5. The Attributes Interface 20.12.6. The AttributesNS Interface 20.13. xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML pars
ing
us
ing
Expat 20.13.1. XMLParser
Object
s 20.13.2. ExpatError Exceptions 20.13.3. Example 20.13.4. Content Model Descriptions 20.13.5. Expat error constants 21. Internet Protocols and Support 21.1. webbrowser — Convenient Web-browser controller 21.1.1. Browser Controller
Object
s 21.2. cgi — Common Gateway Interface support 21.2.1. Introduction 21.2.2. Us
ing
the cgi module 21.2.3. Higher Level Interface 21.2.4. Functions 21.2.5. Car
ing
about security 21.2.6. Install
ing
your CGI script on a Unix system 21.2.7. Test
ing
your CGI script 21.2.8. Debugg
ing
CGI scripts 21.2.9. Common problems and solutions 21.3. cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts 21.4. wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation 21.4.1. wsgiref.util – WSGI environment utilities 21.4.2. wsgiref.headers – WSGI response header tools 21.4.3. wsgiref.simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server 21.4.4. wsgiref.validate — WSGI conformance checker 21.4.5. wsgiref.handlers – server/gateway base classes 21.4.6. Examples 21.5. urllib — URL handl
ing
modules 21.6. urllib.request — Extensible library for open
ing
URLs 21.6.1. Request
Object
s 21.6.2. OpenerDirector
Object
s 21.6.3. BaseHandler
Object
s 21.6.4. HTTPRedirectHandler
Object
s 21.6.5. HTTPCookieProcessor
Object
s 21.6.6. ProxyHandler
Object
s 21.6.7. HTTPPasswordMgr
Object
s 21.6.8. HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth
Object
s 21.6.9. AbstractBasicAuthHandler
Object
s 21.6.10. HTTPBasicAuthHandler
Object
s 21.6.11. ProxyBasicAuthHandler
Object
s 21.6.12. AbstractDigestAuthHandler
Object
s 21.6.13. HTTPDigestAuthHandler
Object
s 21.6.14. ProxyDigestAuthHandler
Object
s 21.6.15. HTTPHandler
Object
s 21.6.16. HTTPSHandler
Object
s 21.6.17. FileHandler
Object
s 21.6.18. DataHandler
Object
s 21.6.19. FTPHandler
Object
s 21.6.20. CacheFTPHandler
Object
s 21.6.21. UnknownHandler
Object
s 21.6.22. HTTPErrorProcessor
Object
s 21.6.23. Examples 21.6.24. Legacy interface 21.6.25. urllib.request Restrictions 21.7. urllib.response — Response classes used by urllib 21.8. urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components 21.8.1. URL Pars
ing
21.8.2. Pars
ing
ASCII Encoded Bytes 21.8.3. Structured Parse Results 21.8.4. URL Quot
ing
21.9. urllib.error — Exception classes raised by urllib.request 21.10. urllib.robotparser — Parser for robots.txt 21.11. http — HTTP modules 21.11.1. HTTP status codes 21.12. http.client — HTTP protocol client 21.12.1. HTTPConnection
Object
s 21.12.2. HTTPResponse
Object
s 21.12.3. Examples 21.12.4. HTTPMessage
Object
s 21.13. ftplib — FTP protocol client 21.13.1. FTP
Object
s 21.13.2. FTP_TLS
Object
s 21.14. poplib — POP3 protocol client 21.14.1. POP3
Object
s 21.14.2. POP3 Example 21.15. imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client 21.15.1. IMAP4
Object
s 21.15.2. IMAP4 Example 21.16. nntplib — NNTP protocol client 21.16.1. NNTP
Object
s 21.16.1.1. Attributes 21.16.1.2. Methods 21.16.2. Utility functions 21.17. smtplib — SMTP protocol client 21.17.1. SMTP
Object
s 21.17.2. SMTP Example 21.18. smtpd — SMTP Server 21.18.1. SMTPServer
Object
s 21.18.2. Debugg
ing
Server
Object
s 21.18.3. PureProxy
Object
s 21.18.4. MailmanProxy
Object
s 21.18.5. SMTPChannel
Object
s 21.19. telnetlib — Telnet client 21.19.1. Telnet
Object
s 21.19.2. Telnet Example 21.20. uuid — UUID
object
s accord
ing
to RFC 4122 21.20.1. Example 21.21. socketserver — A framework for network servers 21.21.1. Server Creation Notes 21.21.2. Server
Object
s 21.21.3. Request Handler
Object
s 21.21.4. Examples 21.21.4.1. socketserver.TCPServer Example 21.21.4.2. socketserver.UDPServer Example 21.21.4.3. Asynchronous Mixins 21.22. http.server — HTTP servers 21.23. http.cookies — HTTP state management 21.23.1. Cookie
Object
s 21.23.2. Morsel
Object
s 21.23.3. Example 21.24. http.cookiejar — Cookie handl
ing
for HTTP clients 21.24.1. CookieJar and FileCookieJar
Object
s 21.24.2. FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers 21.24.3. CookiePolicy
Object
s 21.24.4. DefaultCookiePolicy
Object
s 21.24.5. Cookie Objec
git
pull
卡
在 Un
pack
ing
object
s 解决方法
git
pull
卡
在 Un
pack
ing
object
s 解决方法 在拉取大型二进制对象(如Adobe Illustrator文件等)时,可能会使整个拉取/推送/克隆过程陷入困境。 如果你仓库没有过大的单个文件,但遇到了类似问题,可以尝试将协议说明符从 https 更改为git(或反过来将 git 改为 http),拉完之后再改回来。亲测有效。 例如: ...
git
pull
时一直
卡
在Un
pack
ing
object
s【待解决】
Git
卡
顿
【Git】Git
pull
拉代码
卡
在Un
pack
ing
object
s
问题提出 由于疫情原因居家办公,
pull
代码的时候一直
卡
在这个位置 解决方案 1、可能是公司提供的OA工具有问题,重启OA; 2、将之前的代码git stash存储,再
pull
3、git stash pop弹出之前存储的代码 ...
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