G4.9array_allocator

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G4.9array_allocator

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C++ Primer中文版（第5版）[203M]分3个压缩包本书是久负盛名的C++经典教程，其内容是C++大师Stanley B. Lippman丰富的实践经验和C++标准委员会原负责人Josée Lajoie对C++标准深入理解的完美结合，已经帮助全球无数程序员学会了C++。对C++基本概念和技术全面而且权威的阐述，对现代C++编程风格的强调，使本书成为C++初学者的最佳指南；对于中高级程序员，本书也是不可或缺的参考书。目录第1章开始 1 　　1.1 编写一个简单的C++程序 2 　　1.1.1 编译、运行程序 3 　　1.2 初识输入输出 5 　　1.3 注释简介 8 　　1.4 控制流 10 　　1.4.1 while语句 10 　　1.4.2 for语句 11 　　1.4.3 读取数量不定的输入数据 13 　　1.4.4 if语句 15 　　1.5 类简介 17 　　1.5.1 Sales_item类 17 　　1.5.2 初识成员函数 20 　　1.6 书店程序 21 　　小结 23 　　术语表 23 　　第Ⅰ部分 C++基础 27 　　第2章变量和基本类型 29 　　2.1 基本内置类型 30 　　2.1.1 算术类型 30 　　2.1.2 类型转换 32 　　2.1.3 字面值常量 35 　　2.2 变量 38 　　2.2.1 变量定义 38 　　2.2.2 变量声明和定义的关系 41 　　2.2.3 标识符 42 　　2.2.4 名字的作用域 43 　　2.3 复合类型 45 　　2.3.1 引用 45 　　2.3.2 指针 47 　　2.3.3 理解复合类型的声明 51 　　2.4 const限定符 53 　　2.4.1 const的引用 54 　　2.4.2 指针和const 56 　　2.4.3 顶层const 57 　　2.4.4 constexpr和常量表达式 58 　　2.5 处理类型 60 　　2.5.1 类型别名 60 　　2.5.2 auto类型说明符 61 　　2.5.3 decltype类型指示符 62 　　2.6 自定义数据结构 64 　　2.6.1 定义Sales_data类型 64 　　2.6.2 使用Sales_data类 66 　　2.6.3 编写自己的头文件 67 　　小结 69 　　术语表 69 　　第3章字符串、向量和数组 73 　　3.1 命名空间的using声明 74 　　3.2 标准库类型string 75 　　3.2.1 定义和初始化string对象 76 　　3.2.2 string对象上的操作 77 　　3.2.3 处理string对象中的字符 81 　　3.3 标准库类型vector 86 　　3.3.1 定义和初始化vector对象 87 　　3.3.2 向vector对象中添加元素 90 　　3.3.3 其他vector操作 91 　　3.4 迭代器介绍 95 　　3.4.1 使用迭代器 95 　　3.4.2 迭代器运算 99 　　3.5 数组 101 　　3.5.1 定义和初始化内置数组 101 　　3.5.2 访问数组元素 103 　　3.5.3 指针和数组 105 　　3.5.4 C风格字符串 109 　　3.5.5 与旧代码的接口 111 　　3.6 多维数组 112 　　小结 117 　　术语表 117 　　第4章表达式 119 　　4.1 基础 120 　　4.1.1 基本概念 120 　　4.1.2 优先级与结合律 121 　　4.1.3 求值顺序 123 　　4.2 算术运算符 124 　　4.3 逻辑和关系运算符 126 　　4.4 赋值运算符 129 　　4.5 递增和递减运算符 131 　　4.6 成员访问运算符 133 　　4.7 条件运算符 134 　　4.8 位运算符 135 　　4.9 sizeof运算符 139 　　4.10 逗号运算符 140 　　4.11 类型转换 141 　　4.11.1 算术转换 142 　　4.11.2 其他隐式类型转换 143 　　4.11.3 显式转换 144 　　4.12 运算符优先级表 147 　　小结 149 　　术语表 149 　　第5章语句 153 　　5.1 简单语句 154 　　5.2 语句作用域 155 　　5.3 条件语句 156 　　5.3.1 if语句 156 　　5.3.2 switch语句 159 　　5.4 迭代语句 165 　　5.4.1 while语句 165 　　5.4.2 传统的for语句 166 　　5.4.3 范围for语句 168 　　5.4.4 do while语句 169 　　5.5 跳转语句 170 　　5.5.1 break

C++ Primer中文版（第5版）[203M]分3个压缩包本书是久负盛名的C++经典教程，其内容是C++大师Stanley B. Lippman丰富的实践经验和C++标准委员会原负责人Josée Lajoie对C++标准深入理解的完美结合，已经帮助全球无数程序员学会了C++。对C++基本概念和技术全面而且权威的阐述，对现代C++编程风格的强调，使本书成为C++初学者的最佳指南；对于中高级程序员，本书也是不可或缺的参考书。目录第1章开始 1 　　1.1 编写一个简单的C++程序 2 　　1.1.1 编译、运行程序 3 　　1.2 初识输入输出 5 　　1.3 注释简介 8 　　1.4 控制流 10 　　1.4.1 while语句 10 　　1.4.2 for语句 11 　　1.4.3 读取数量不定的输入数据 13 　　1.4.4 if语句 15 　　1.5 类简介 17 　　1.5.1 Sales_item类 17 　　1.5.2 初识成员函数 20 　　1.6 书店程序 21 　　小结 23 　　术语表 23 　　第Ⅰ部分 C++基础 27 　　第2章变量和基本类型 29 　　2.1 基本内置类型 30 　　2.1.1 算术类型 30 　　2.1.2 类型转换 32 　　2.1.3 字面值常量 35 　　2.2 变量 38 　　2.2.1 变量定义 38 　　2.2.2 变量声明和定义的关系 41 　　2.2.3 标识符 42 　　2.2.4 名字的作用域 43 　　2.3 复合类型 45 　　2.3.1 引用 45 　　2.3.2 指针 47 　　2.3.3 理解复合类型的声明 51 　　2.4 const限定符 53 　　2.4.1 const的引用 54 　　2.4.2 指针和const 56 　　2.4.3 顶层const 57 　　2.4.4 constexpr和常量表达式 58 　　2.5 处理类型 60 　　2.5.1 类型别名 60 　　2.5.2 auto类型说明符 61 　　2.5.3 decltype类型指示符 62 　　2.6 自定义数据结构 64 　　2.6.1 定义Sales_data类型 64 　　2.6.2 使用Sales_data类 66 　　2.6.3 编写自己的头文件 67 　　小结 69 　　术语表 69 　　第3章字符串、向量和数组 73 　　3.1 命名空间的using声明 74 　　3.2 标准库类型string 75 　　3.2.1 定义和初始化string对象 76 　　3.2.2 string对象上的操作 77 　　3.2.3 处理string对象中的字符 81 　　3.3 标准库类型vector 86 　　3.3.1 定义和初始化vector对象 87 　　3.3.2 向vector对象中添加元素 90 　　3.3.3 其他vector操作 91 　　3.4 迭代器介绍 95 　　3.4.1 使用迭代器 95 　　3.4.2 迭代器运算 99 　　3.5 数组 101 　　3.5.1 定义和初始化内置数组 101 　　3.5.2 访问数组元素 103 　　3.5.3 指针和数组 105 　　3.5.4 C风格字符串 109 　　3.5.5 与旧代码的接口 111 　　3.6 多维数组 112 　　小结 117 　　术语表 117 　　第4章表达式 119 　　4.1 基础 120 　　4.1.1 基本概念 120 　　4.1.2 优先级与结合律 121 　　4.1.3 求值顺序 123 　　4.2 算术运算符 124 　　4.3 逻辑和关系运算符 126 　　4.4 赋值运算符 129 　　4.5 递增和递减运算符 131 　　4.6 成员访问运算符 133 　　4.7 条件运算符 134 　　4.8 位运算符 135 　　4.9 sizeof运算符 139 　　4.10 逗号运算符 140 　　4.11 类型转换 141 　　4.11.1 算术转换 142 　　4.11.2 其他隐式类型转换 143 　　4.11.3 显式转换 144 　　4.12 运算符优先级表 147 　　小结 149 　　术语表 149 　　第5章语句 153 　　5.1 简单语句 154 　　5.2 语句作用域 155 　　5.3 条件语句 156 　　5.3.1 if语句 156 　　5.3.2 switch语句 159 　　5.4 迭代语句 165 　　5.4.1 while语句 165 　　5.4.2 传统的for语句 166 　　5.4.3 范围for语句 168 　　5.4.4 do while语句 169 　　5.5 跳转语句 170 　　5.5.1 break语句 170 　　5.5.2 continue语句 171 　　5.5.3 goto语句 172 　　5.6 TRY语句块和异常处理 172 　　5.6.1 throw表达式 173 　　5.6.2 try语句块 174 　　5.6.3 标准异常 176 　　小结 178 　　术语表 178 　　第6章函数 181 　　6.1 函数基础 182 　　6.1.1 局部对象 184 　　6.1.2 函数声明 186 　　6.1.3 分离式编译 186 　　6.2 参数传递 187 　　6.2.1 传值参数 187 　　6.2.2 传引用参数 188 　　6.2.3 const形参和实参 190 　　6.2.4 数组形参 193 　　6.2.5 main：处理命令行选项 196 　　6.2.6 含有可变形参的函数 197 　　6.3 返回类型和return语句 199 　　6.3.1 无返回值函数 200 　　6.3.2 有返回值函数 200 　　6.3.3 返回数组指针 205 　　6.4 函数重载 206 　　6.4.1 重载与作用域 210 　　6.5 特殊用途语言特性 211 　　6.5.1 默认实参 211 　　6.5.2 内联函数和constexpr函数 213 　　6.5.3 调试帮助 215 　　6.6 函数匹配 217 　　6.6.1 实参类型转换 219 　　6.7 函数指针 221 　　小结 225 　　术语表 225 　　第7章类 227 　　7.1 定义抽象数据类型 228 　　7.1.1 设计Sales_data类 228 　　7.1.2 定义改进的Sales_data类 230 　　7.1.3 定义类相关的非成员函数 234 　　7.1.4 构造函数 235 　　7.1.5 拷贝、赋值和析构 239 　　7.2 访问控制与封装 240 　　7.2.1 友元 241 　　7.3 类的其他特性 243 　　7.3.1 类成员再探 243 　　7.3.2 返回*this的成员函数 246 　　7.3.3 类类型 249 　　7.3.4 友元再探 250 　　7.4 类的作用域 253 　　7.4.1 名字查找与类的作用域 254 　　7.5 构造函数再探 257 　　7.5.1 构造函数初始值列表 258 　　7.5.2 委托构造函数 261 　　7.5.3 默认构造函数的作用 262 　　7.5.4 隐式的类类型转换 263 　　7.5.5 聚合类 266 　　7.5.6 字面值常量类 267 　　7.6 类的静态成员 268 　　小结 273 　　术语表 273 　　第Ⅱ部 C++标准库 275 　　第8章 IO库 277 　　8.1 IO类 278 　　8.1.1 IO对象无拷贝或赋值 279 　　8.1.2 条件状态 279 　　8.1.3 管理输出缓冲 281 　　8.2 文件输入输出 283 　　8.2.1 使用文件流对象 284 　　8.2.2 文件模式 286 　　8.3 string流 287 　　8.3.1 使用istringstream 287 　　8.3.2 使用ostringstream 289 　　小结 290 　　术语表 290 　　第9章顺序容器 291 　　9.1 顺序容器概述 292 　　9.2 容器库概览 294 　　9.2.1 迭代器 296 　　9.2.2 容器类型成员 297 　　9.2.3 begin和end成员 298 　　9.2.4 容器定义和初始化 299 　　9.2.5 赋值和swap 302 　　9.2.6 容器大小操作 304 　　9.2.7 关系运算符 304 　　9.3 顺序容器操作 305 　　9.3.1 向顺序容器添加元素 305 　　9.3.2 访问元素 309 　　9.3.3 删除元素 311 　　9.3.4 特殊的forward_list操作 312 　　9.3.5 改变容器大小 314 　　9.3.6 容器操作可能使迭代器失效 315 　　9.4 vector对象是如何增长的 317 　　9.5 额外的string操作 320 　　9.5.1 构造string的其他方法 321 　　9.5.2 改变string的其他方法 322 　　9.5.3 string搜索操作 325 　　9.5.4 compare函数 327 　　9.5.5 数值转换 327 　　9.6 容器适配器 329 　　小结 332 　　术语表 332 　　第10章泛型算法 335 　　10.1 概述 336 　　10.2 初识泛型算法 338 　　10.2.1 只读算法 338 　　10.2.2 写容器元素的算法 339 　　10.2.3 重排容器元素的算法 342 　　10.3 定制操作 344 　　10.3.1 向算法传递函数 344 　　10.3.2 lambda表达式 345 　　10.3.3 lambda捕获和返回 349 　　10.3.4 参数绑定 354 　　10.4 再探迭代器 357 　　10.4.1 插入迭代器 358 　　10.4.2 iostream迭代器 359 　　10.4.3 反向迭代器 363 　　10.5 泛型算法结构 365 　　10.5.1 5类迭代器 365 　　10.5.2 算法形参模式 367 　　10.5.3 算法命名规范 368 　　10.6 特定容器算法 369 　　小结 371 　　术语表 371 　　第11章关联容器 373 　　11.1 使用关联容器 374 　　11.2 关联容器概述 376 　　11.2.1 定义关联容器 376 　　11.2.2 关键字类型的要求 378 　　11.2.3 pair类型 379 　　11.3 关联容器操作 381 　　11.3.1 关联容器迭代器 382 　　11.3.2 添加元素 383 　　11.3.3 删除元素 386 　　11.3.4 map的下标操作 387 　　11.3.5 访问元素 388 　　11.3.6 一个单词转换的map 391 　　11.4 无序容器 394 　　小结 397 　　术语表 397 　　第12章动态内存 399 　　12.1 动态内存与智能指针 400 　　12.1.1 shared_ptr类 400 　　12.1.2 直接管理内存 407 　　12.1.3 shared_ptr和new结合使用 412 　　12.1.4 智能指针和异常 415 　　12.1.5 unique_ptr 417 　　12.1.6 weak_ptr 420 　　12.2 动态数组 423 　　12.2.1 new和数组 423 　　12.2.2 allocator类 427 　　12.3 使用标准库：文本查询程序 430 　　12.3.1 文本查询程序设计 430 　　12.3.2 文本查询程序类的定义 432 　　小结 436 　　术语表 436 　　第Ⅲ部分类设计者的工具 437 　　第13章拷贝控制 439 　　13.1 拷贝、赋值与销毁 440 　　13.1.1 拷贝构造函数 440 　　13.1.2 拷贝赋值运算符 443 　　13.1.3 析构函数 444 　　13.1.4 三/五法则 447 　　13.1.5 使用=default 449 　　13.1.6 阻止拷贝 449 　　13.2 拷贝控制和资源管理 452 　　13.2.1 行为像值的类 453 　　13.2.2 定义行为像指针的类 455 　　13.3 交换操作 457 　　13.4 拷贝控制示例 460 　　13.5 动态内存管理类 464 　　13.6 对象移动 470 　　13.6.1 右值引用 471 　　13.6.2 移动构造函数和移动赋值运算符 473 　　13.6.3 右值引用和成员函数 481 　　小结 486 　　术语表 486 　　第14章操作重载与类型转换 489 　　14.1 基本概念 490 　　14.2 输入和输出运算符 494 　　14.2.1 重载输出运算符<> 495 　　14.3 算术和关系运算符 497 　　14.3.1 相等运算符 497 　　14.3.2 关系运算符 498 　　14.4 赋值运算符 499 　　14.5 下标运算符 501 　　14.6 递增和递减运算符 502 　　14.7 成员访问运算符 504 　　14.8 函数调用运算符 506 　　14.8.1 lambda是函数对象 507 　　14.8.2 标准库定义的函数对象 509 　　14.8.3 可调用对象与function 511 　　14.9 重载、类型转换与运算符 514 　　14.9.1 类型转换运算符 514 　　14.9.2 避免有二义性的类型转换 517 　　14.9.3 函数匹配与重载运算符 521 　　小结 523 　　术语表 523 　　第15章面向对象程序设计 525 　　15.1 OOP：概述 526 　　15.2 定义基类和派生类 527 　　15.2.1 定义基类 528 　　15.2.2 定义派生类 529 　　15.2.3 类型转换与继承 534 　　15.3 虚函数 536 　　15.4 抽象基类 540 　　15.5 访问控制与继承 542 　　15.6 继承中的类作用域 547 　　15.7 构造函数与拷贝控制 551 　　15.7.1 虚析构函数 552 　　15.7.2 合成拷贝控制与继承 552 　　15.7.3 派生类的拷贝控制成员 554 　　15.7.4 继承的构造函数 557 　　15.8 容器与继承 558 　　15.8.1 编写Basket类 559 　　15.9 文本查询程序再探 562 　　15.9.1 面向对象的解决方案 563 　　15.9.2 Query_base类和Query类 567 　　15.9.3 派生类 568 　　15.9.4 eval函数 571 　　小结 575 　　术语表 575 　　第16章模板与泛型编程 577 　　16.1 定义模板 578 　　16.1.1 函数模板 578 　　16.1.2 类模板 583 　　16.1.3 模板参数 592 　　16.1.4 成员模板 595 　　16.1.5 控制实例化 597 　　16.1.6 效率与灵活性 599 　　16.2 模板实参推断 600 　　16.2.1 类型转换与模板类型参数 601 　　16.2.2 函数模板显式实参 603 　　16.2.3 尾置返回类型与类型转换 604 　　16.2.4 函数指针和实参推断 607 　　16.2.5 模板实参推断和引用 608 　　16.2.6 理解std::move 610 　　16.2.7 转发 612 　　16.3 重载与模板 614 　　16.4 可变参数模板 618 　　16.4.1 编写可变参数函数模板 620 　　16.4.2 包扩展 621 　　16.4.3 转发参数包 622 　　16.5 模板特例化 624 　　小结 630 　　术语表 630 　　第Ⅳ部分高级主题 633 　　第17章标准库特殊设施 635 　　17.1 tuple类型 636 　　17.1.1 定义和初始化tuple 637 　　17.1.2 使用tuple返回多个值 638 　　17.2 BITSET类型 640 　　17.2.1 定义和初始化bitset 641 　　17.2.2 bitset操作 643 　　17.3 正则表达式 645 　　17.3.1 使用正则表达式库 646 　　17.3.2 匹配与Regex迭代器类型 650 　　17.3.3 使用子表达式 653 　　17.3.4 使用regex_replace 657 　　17.4 随机数 659 　　17.4.2 其他随机数分布 663 　　bernoulli_distribution类 665 　　17.5 IO库再探 666 　　17.5.1 格式化输入与输出 666 　　17.5.2 未格式化的输入/输出操作 673 　　17.5.3 流随机访问 676 　　小结 680 　　术语表 680 　　第18章用于大型程序的工具 683 　　18.1 异常处理 684 　　18.1.1 抛出异常 684 　　18.1.2 捕获异常 687 　　18.1.3 函数try语句块与构造函数 689 　　18.1.4 noexcept异常说明 690 　　18.1.5 异常类层次 693 　　18.2 命名空间 695 　　18.2.1 命名空间定义 695 　　18.2.2 使用命名空间成员 701 　　18.2.3 类、命名空间与作用域 705 　　18.2.4 重载与命名空间 708 　　18.3 多重继承与虚继承 710 　　18.3.1 多重继承 711 　　18.3.2 类型转换与多个基类 713 　　18.3.3 多重继承下的类作用域 715 　　18.3.4 虚继承 717 　　18.3.5 构造函数与虚继承 720 　　小结 722 　　术语表 722 　　第19章特殊工具与技术 725 　　19.1 控制内存分配 726 　　19.1.1 重载new和delete 726 　　19.1.2 定位new表达式 729 　　19.2 运行时类型识别 730 　　19.2.1 dynamic_cast运算符 730 　　19.2.2 typeid运算符 732 　　19.2.3 使用RTTI 733 　　19.2.4 type_info类 735 　　19.3 枚举类型 736 　　19.4 类成员指针 739 　　19.4.1 数据成员指针 740 　　19.4.2 成员函数指针 741 　　19.4.3 将成员函数用作可调用对象 744 　　19.5 嵌套类 746 　　19.6 union：一种节省空间的类 749 　　19.7 局部类 754 　　19.8 固有的不可移植的特性 755 　　19.8.1 位域 756 　　19.8.2 volatile限定符 757 　　19.8.3 链接指示：extern "C" 758 　　小结 762 　　术语表 762 　　附录A 标准库 765 　　A.1 标准库名字和头文件 766 　　A.2 算法概览 770 　　A.2.1 查找对象的算法 771 　　A.2.2 其他只读算法 772 　　A.2.3 二分搜索算法 772 　　A.2.4 写容器元素的算法 773 　　A.2.5 划分与排序算法 775 　　A.2.6 通用重排操作 776 　　A.2.7 排列算法 778 　　A.2.8 有序序列的集合算法 778 　　A.2.9 最小值和最大值 779 　　A.2.10 数值算法 780 　　A.3 随机数 781 　　A.3.1 随机数分布 781 　　A.3.2 随机数引擎 783 　　C++11的新特性　　2.1.1 long long类型 31 　　2.2.1 列表初始化 39 　　2.3.2 nullptr常量 48 　　2.4.4 constexpr变量 59 　　2.5.1 类型别名声明 60 　　2.5.2 auto类型指示符 61 　　2.5.3 decltype类型指示符 62 　　2.6.1 类内初始化 65 　　3.2.2 使用auto或decltype缩写类型 79 　　3.2.3 范围for语句 82 　　3.3 定义vector对象的vector（向量的向量） 87 　　3.3.1 vector对象的列表初始化 88 　　3.4.1 容器的cbegin和cend函数 98 　　3.5.3 标准库begin和end函数 106 　　3.6 使用auto和decltype简化声明 115 　　4.2 除法的舍入规则 125 　　4.4 用大括号包围的值列表赋值 129 　　4.9 将sizeof用于类成员 139 　　5.4.3 范围for语句 168 　　6.2.6 标准库initializer_list类 197 　　6.3.2 列表初始化返回值 203 　　6.3.3 定义尾置返回类型 206 　　6.3.3 使用decltype简化返回类型定义　　6.5.2 constexpr函数 214 　　7.1.4 使用=default生成默认构造函数 237 　　7.3.1 类对象成员的类内初始化 246 　　7.5.2 委托构造函数 261 　　7.5.6 constexpr构造函数 268 　　8.2.1 用string对象处理文件名 284 　　9.1 array和forward_list容器 293 　　9.2.3 容器的cbegin和cend函数 298 　　9.2.4 容器的列表初始化 300 　　9.2.5 容器的非成员函数swap 303 　　9.3.1 容器insert成员的返回类型 308 　　9.3.1 容器的emplace成员的返回类型 308 　　9.4 shrink_to_fit 318 　　9.5.5 string的数值转换函数 327 　　10.3.2 Lambda表达式 346 　　10.3.3 Lambda表达式中的尾置返回类型 353 　　10.3.4 标准库bind函数 354 　　11.2.1 关联容器的列表初始化 377 　　11.2.3 列表初始化pair的返回类型 380 　　11.3.2 pair的列表初始化 384 　　11.4 无序容器 394 　　12.1 智能指针 400 　　12.1.1 shared_ptr类　　12.1.2 动态分配对象的列表初始化 407 　　12.1.2 auto和动态分配 408 　　12.1.5 unique_ptr类 417 　　12.1.6 weak_ptr类 420 　　12.2.1 范围for语句不能应用于动态分配数组 424 　　12.2.1 动态分配数组的列表初始化 424 　　12.2.1 auto不能用于分配数组 424 　　12.2.2 allocator::construct可使用任意构造函数 428 　　13.1.5 将=default用于拷贝控制成员 449 　　13.1.6 使用=default阻止拷贝类对象 449 　　13.5 用移动类对象代替拷贝类对象 469 　　13.6.1 右值引用 471 　　13.6.1 标准库move函数 472 　　13.6.2 移动构造函数和移动赋值 473 　　13.6.2 移动构造函数通常应该是noexcept 473 　　13.6.2 移动迭代器 480 　　13.6.3 引用限定成员函数 483 　　14.8.3 function类模板 512 　　14.9.1 explicit类型转换运算符 516 　　15.2.2 虚函数的override指示符 530 　　15.2.2 通过定义类为final来阻止继承 533 　　15.3 虚函数的override和final指示符 538 　　15.7.2 删除的拷贝控制和继承 553 　　15.7.4 继承的构造函数 557 　　16.1.2 声明模板类型形参为友元 590 　　16.1.2 模板类型别名 590 　　16.1.3 模板函数的默认模板参数 594 　　16.1.5 实例化的显式控制 597 　　16.2.3 模板函数与尾置返回类型 605 　　16.2.5 引用折叠规则 609 　　16.2.6 用static_cast将左值转换为右值 612 　　16.2.7 标准库forward函数 614 　　16.4 可变参数模板 618 　　16.4 sizeof...运算符 619 　　16.4.3 可变参数模板与转发 622 　　17.1 标准库Tuple类模板 636 　　17.2.2 新的bitset运算 643 　　17.3 正则表达式库 645 　　17.4 随机数库 659 　　17.5.1 浮点数格式控制 670 　　18.1.4 noexcept异常指示符 690 　　18.1.4 noexcept运算符 691 　　18.2.1 内联名字空间 699 　　18.3.1 继承的构造函数和多重继承 712 　　19.3 有作用域的enum 736 　　19.3 说明类型用于保存enum对象 738 　　19.3 enum的提前声明 738 　　19.4.3 标准库mem_fn类模板 746 　　19.6 类类型的联合成员 75

Python参考手册，官方正式版参考手册，chm版。以下摘取部分内容:Navigation index modules | next | Python » 3.6.5 Documentation » Python Documentation contents What’s New in Python What’s New In Python 3.6 Summary – Release highlights New Features PEP 498: Formatted string literals PEP 526: Syntax for variable annotations PEP 515: Underscores in Numeric Literals PEP 525: Asynchronous Generators PEP 530: Asynchronous Comprehensions PEP 487: Simpler customization of class creation PEP 487: Descriptor Protocol Enhancements PEP 519: Adding a file system path protocol PEP 495: Local Time Disambiguation PEP 529: Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8 PEP 528: Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8 PEP 520: Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order PEP 468: Preserving Keyword Argument Order New dict implementation PEP 523: Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython PYTHONMALLOC environment variable DTrace and SystemTap probing support Other Language Changes New Modules secrets Improved Modules array ast asyncio binascii cmath collections concurrent.futures contextlib datetime decimal distutils email encodings enum faulthandler fileinput hashlib http.client idlelib and IDLE importlib inspect json logging math multiprocessing os pathlib pdb pickle pickletools pydoc random re readline rlcompleter shlex site sqlite3 socket socketserver ssl statistics struct subprocess sys telnetlib time timeit tkinter traceback tracemalloc typing unicodedata unittest.mock urllib.request urllib.robotparser venv warnings winreg winsound xmlrpc.client zipfile zlib Optimizations Build and C API Changes Other Improvements Deprecated New Keywords Deprecated Python behavior Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods asynchat asyncore dbm distutils grp importlib os re ssl tkinter venv Deprecated functions and types of the C API Deprecated Build Options Removed API and Feature Removals Porting to Python 3.6 Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior Changes in the Python API Changes in the C API CPython bytecode changes Notable changes in Python 3.6.2 New make regen-all build target Removal of make touch build target Notable changes in Python 3.6.5 What’s New In Python 3.5 Summary – Release highlights New Features PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray PEP 484 - Type Hints PEP 471 - os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator PEP 475: Retry system calls failing with EINTR PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside generators PEP 485: A function for testing approximate equality PEP 486: Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments PEP 488: Elimination of PYO files PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization Other Language Changes New Modules typing zipapp Improved Modules argparse asyncio bz2 cgi cmath code collections collections.abc compileall concurrent.futures configparser contextlib csv curses dbm difflib distutils doctest email enum faulthandler functools glob gzip heapq http http.client idlelib and IDLE imaplib imghdr importlib inspect io ipaddress json linecache locale logging lzma math multiprocessing operator os pathlib pickle poplib re readline selectors shutil signal smtpd smtplib sndhdr socket ssl Memory BIO Support Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support Other Changes sqlite3 subprocess sys sysconfig tarfile threading time timeit tkinter traceback types unicodedata unittest unittest.mock urllib wsgiref xmlrpc xml.sax zipfile Other module-level changes Optimizations Build and C API Changes Deprecated New Keywords Deprecated Python Behavior Unsupported Operating Systems Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods Removed API and Feature Removals Porting to Python 3.5 Changes in Python behavior Changes in the Python API Changes in the C API What’s New In Python 3.4 Summary – Release Highlights New Features PEP 453: Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations Bootstrapping pip By Default Documentation Changes PEP 446: Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable Improvements to Codec Handling PEP 451: A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System Other Language Changes New Modules asyncio ensurepip enum pathlib selectors statistics tracemalloc Improved Modules abc aifc argparse audioop base64 collections colorsys contextlib dbm dis doctest email filecmp functools gc glob hashlib hmac html http idlelib and IDLE importlib inspect ipaddress logging marshal mmap multiprocessing operator os pdb pickle plistlib poplib pprint pty pydoc re resource select shelve shutil smtpd smtplib socket sqlite3 ssl stat struct subprocess sunau sys tarfile textwrap threading traceback types urllib unittest venv wave weakref xml.etree zipfile CPython Implementation Changes PEP 445: Customization of CPython Memory Allocators PEP 442: Safe Object Finalization PEP 456: Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm PEP 436: Argument Clinic Other Build and C API Changes Other Improvements Significant Optimizations Deprecated Deprecations in the Python API Deprecated Features Removed Operating Systems No Longer Supported API and Feature Removals Code Cleanups Porting to Python 3.4 Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior Changes in the Python API Changes in the C API Changed in 3.4.3 PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients What’s New In Python 3.3 Summary – Release highlights PEP 405: Virtual Environments PEP 420: Implicit Namespace Packages PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation Features API changes PEP 393: Flexible String Representation Functionality Performance and resource usage PEP 397: Python Launcher for Windows PEP 3151: Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator PEP 409: Suppressing exception context PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions PEP 412: Key-Sharing Dictionary PEP 362: Function Signature Object PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation SimpleNamespace Using importlib as the Implementation of Import New APIs Visible Changes Other Language Changes A Finer-Grained Import Lock Builtin functions and types New Modules faulthandler ipaddress lzma Improved Modules abc array base64 binascii bz2 codecs collections contextlib crypt curses datetime decimal Features API changes email Policy Framework Provisional Policy with New Header API Other API Changes ftplib functools gc hmac http html imaplib inspect io itertools logging math mmap multiprocessing nntplib os pdb pickle pydoc re sched select shlex shutil signal smtpd smtplib socket socketserver sqlite3 ssl stat struct subprocess sys tarfile tempfile textwrap threading time types unittest urllib webbrowser xml.etree.ElementTree zlib Optimizations Build and C API Changes Deprecated Unsupported Operating Systems Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods Deprecated functions and types of the C API Deprecated features Porting to Python 3.3 Porting Python code Porting C code Building C extensions Command Line Switch Changes What’s New In Python 3.2 PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Parsing Module PEP 391: Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging PEP 3148: The concurrent.futures module PEP 3147: PYC Repository Directories PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1 Other Language Changes New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules email elementtree functools itertools collections threading datetime and time math abc io reprlib logging csv contextlib decimal and fractions ftp popen select gzip and zipfile tarfile hashlib ast os shutil sqlite3 html socket ssl nntp certificates imaplib http.client unittest random poplib asyncore tempfile inspect pydoc dis dbm ctypes site sysconfig pdb configparser urllib.parse mailbox turtledemo Multi-threading Optimizations Unicode Codecs Documentation IDLE Code Repository Build and C API Changes Porting to Python 3.2 What’s New In Python 3.1 PEP 372: Ordered Dictionaries PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator Other Language Changes New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules Optimizations IDLE Build and C API Changes Porting to Python 3.1 What’s New In Python 3.0 Common Stumbling Blocks Print Is A Function Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists Ordering Comparisons Integers Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit Overview Of Syntax Changes New Syntax Changed Syntax Removed Syntax Changes Already Present In Python 2.6 Library Changes PEP 3101: A New Approach To String Formatting Changes To Exceptions Miscellaneous Other Changes Operators And Special Methods Builtins Build and C API Changes Performance Porting To Python 3.0 What’s New in Python 2.7 The Future for Python 2.x Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings Python 3.1 Features PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging PEP 3106: Dictionary Views PEP 3137: The memoryview Object Other Language Changes Interpreter Changes Optimizations New and Improved Modules New module: importlib New module: sysconfig ttk: Themed Widgets for Tk Updated module: unittest Updated module: ElementTree 1.3 Build and C API Changes Capsules Port-Specific Changes: Windows Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X Port-Specific Changes: FreeBSD Other Changes and Fixes Porting to Python 2.7 New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases PEP 434: IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches PEP 466: Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.6 Python 3.0 Changes to the Development Process New Issue Tracker: Roundup New Documentation Format: reStructuredText Using Sphinx PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement Writing Context Managers The contextlib module PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module PEP 370: Per-user site-packages Directory PEP 371: The multiprocessing Package PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting PEP 3105: print As a Function PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes PEP 3112: Byte Literals PEP 3116: New I/O Library PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax PEP 3129: Class Decorators PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers The fractions Module Other Language Changes Optimizations Interpreter Changes New and Improved Modules The ast module The future_builtins module The json module: JavaScript Object Notation The plistlib module: A Property-List Parser ctypes Enhancements Improved SSL Support Deprecations and Removals Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes: Windows Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X Port-Specific Changes: IRIX Porting to Python 2.6 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.5 PEP 308: Conditional Expressions PEP 309: Partial Function Application PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1 PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally PEP 342: New Generator Features PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement Writing Context Managers The contextlib module PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type PEP 357: The ‘__index__’ method Other Language Changes Interactive Interpreter Changes Optimizations New, Improved, and Removed Modules The ctypes package The ElementTree package The hashlib package The sqlite3 package The wsgiref package Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes Porting to Python 2.5 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.4 PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers PEP 289: Generator Expressions PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods PEP 322: Reverse Iteration PEP 324: New subprocess Module PEP 327: Decimal Data Type Why is Decimal needed? The Decimal type The Context type PEP 328: Multi-line Imports PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions Other Language Changes Optimizations New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules cookielib doctest Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes Porting to Python 2.4 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.3 PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype PEP 255: Simple Generators PEP 263: Source Code Encodings PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT PEP 278: Universal Newline Support PEP 279: enumerate() PEP 282: The logging Package PEP 285: A Boolean Type PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils PEP 302: New Import Hooks PEP 305: Comma-separated Files PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements Extended Slices Other Language Changes String Changes Optimizations New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules Date/Time Type The optparse Module Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator Build and C API Changes Port-Specific Changes Other Changes and Fixes Porting to Python 2.3 Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.2 Introduction PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes Old and New Classes Descriptors Multiple Inheritance: The Diamond Rule Attribute Access Related Links PEP 234: Iterators PEP 255: Simple Generators PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator Unicode Changes PEP 227: Nested Scopes New and Improved Modules Interpreter Changes and Fixes Other Changes and Fixes Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.1 Introduction PEP 227: Nested Scopes PEP 236: __future__ Directives PEP 207: Rich Comparisons PEP 230: Warning Framework PEP 229: New Build System PEP 205: Weak References PEP 232: Function Attributes PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook PEP 208: New Coercion Model PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages New and Improved Modules Other Changes and Fixes Acknowledgements What’s New in Python 2.0 Introduction What About Python 1.6? New Development Process Unicode List Comprehensions Augmented Assignment String Methods Garbage Collection of Cycles Other Core Changes Minor Language Changes Changes to Built-in Functions Porting to 2.0 Extending/Embedding Changes Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install XML Modules SAX2 Support DOM Support Relationship to PyXML Module changes New modules IDLE Improvements Deleted and Deprecated Modules Acknowledgements Changelog Python 3.6.5 final? Tests Build Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1? Security Core and Builtins Library Documentation Tests Build Windows macOS IDLE Tools/Demos C API Python 3.6.4 final? Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library Documentation Tests Build Windows macOS IDLE Tools/Demos C API Python 3.6.3 final? Library Build Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1? Security Core and Builtins Library Documentation Tests Build Windows IDLE Tools/Demos Python 3.6.2 final? Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2? Security Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library Security Library IDLE C API Build Documentation Tools/Demos Tests Windows Python 3.6.1 final? Core and Builtins Build Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Windows C API Documentation Tests Build Python 3.6.0 final? Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2? Core and Builtins Tools/Demos Windows Build Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library C API Documentation Tools/Demos Python 3.6.0 beta 4? Core and Builtins Library Documentation Tests Build Python 3.6.0 beta 3? Core and Builtins Library Windows Build Tests Python 3.6.0 beta 2? Core and Builtins Library Windows C API Build Tests Python 3.6.0 beta 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE C API Tests Build Tools/Demos Windows Python 3.6.0 alpha 4? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Tests Windows Build Python 3.6.0 alpha 3? Core and Builtins Library Security Library Security Library IDLE C API Build Tools/Demos Documentation Tests Python 3.6.0 alpha 2? Core and Builtins Library Security Library Security Library IDLE Documentation Tests Windows Build Windows C API Tools/Demos Python 3.6.0 alpha 1? Core and Builtins Library Security Library Security Library Security Library IDLE Documentation Tests Build Windows Tools/Demos C API Python 3.5.3 final? Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library Security Library Security Library IDLE C API Documentation Tests Tools/Demos Windows Build Python 3.5.2 final? Core and Builtins Tests IDLE Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Security Library Security Library Security Library Security Library Security Library IDLE Documentation Tests Build Windows Tools/Demos Windows Python 3.5.1 final? Core and Builtins Windows Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Documentation Tests Build Windows Tools/Demos Python 3.5.0 final? Build Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4? Library Build Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3? Core and Builtins Library Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2? Core and Builtins Library Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Documentation Tests Python 3.5.0 beta 4? Core and Builtins Library Build Python 3.5.0 beta 3? Core and Builtins Library Tests Documentation Build Python 3.5.0 beta 2? Core and Builtins Library Python 3.5.0 beta 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Tests Documentation Tools/Demos Python 3.5.0 alpha 4? Core and Builtins Library Build Tests Tools/Demos C API Python 3.5.0 alpha 3? Core and Builtins Library Build Tests Tools/Demos Python 3.5.0 alpha 2? Core and Builtins Library Build C API Windows Python 3.5.0 alpha 1? Core and Builtins Library IDLE Build C API Documentation Tests Tools/Demos Windows The Python Tutorial 1. Whetting Your Appetite 2. Using the Python Interpreter 2.1. Invoking the Interpreter 2.1.1. Argument Passing 2.1.2. Interactive Mode 2.2. The Interpreter and Its Environment 2.2.1. Source Code Encoding 3. An Informal Introduction to Python 3.1. Using Python as a Calculator 3.1.1. Numbers 3.1.2. Strings 3.1.3. Lists 3.2. First Steps Towards Programming 4. More Control Flow Tools 4.1. if Statements 4.2. for Statements 4.3. The range() Function 4.4. break and continue Statements, and else Clauses on Loops 4.5. pass Statements 4.6. Defining Functions 4.7. More on Defining Functions 4.7.1. Default Argument Values 4.7.2. Keyword Arguments 4.7.3. Arbitrary Argument Lists 4.7.4. Unpacking Argument Lists 4.7.5. Lambda Expressions 4.7.6. Documentation Strings 4.7.7. Function Annotations 4.8. Intermezzo: Coding Style 5. Data Structures 5.1. More on Lists 5.1.1. Using Lists as Stacks 5.1.2. Using Lists as Queues 5.1.3. List Comprehensions 5.1.4. Nested List Comprehensions 5.2. The del statement 5.3. Tuples and Sequences 5.4. Sets 5.5. Dictionaries 5.6. Looping Techniques 5.7. More on Conditions 5.8. Comparing Sequences and Other Types 6. Modules 6.1. More on Modules 6.1.1. Executing modules as scripts 6.1.2. The Module Search Path 6.1.3. “Compiled” Python files 6.2. Standard Modules 6.3. The dir() Function 6.4. Packages 6.4.1. Importing * From a Package 6.4.2. Intra-package References 6.4.3. Packages in Multiple Directories 7. Input and Output 7.1. Fancier Output Formatting 7.1.1. Old string formatting 7.2. Reading and Writing Files 7.2.1. Methods of File Objects 7.2.2. Saving structured data with json 8. Errors and Exceptions 8.1. Syntax Errors 8.2. Exceptions 8.3. Handling Exceptions 8.4. Raising Exceptions 8.5. User-defined Exceptions 8.6. Defining Clean-up Actions 8.7. Predefined Clean-up Actions 9. Classes 9.1. A Word About Names and Objects 9.2. Python Scopes and Namespaces 9.2.1. Scopes and Namespaces Example 9.3. A First Look at Classes 9.3.1. Class Definition Syntax 9.3.2. Class Objects 9.3.3. Instance Objects 9.3.4. Method Objects 9.3.5. Class and Instance Variables 9.4. Random Remarks 9.5. Inheritance 9.5.1. Multiple Inheritance 9.6. Private Variables 9.7. Odds and Ends 9.8. Iterators 9.9. Generators 9.10. Generator Expressions 10. Brief Tour of the Standard Library 10.1. Operating System Interface 10.2. File Wildcards 10.3. Command Line Arguments 10.4. Error Output Redirection and Program Termination 10.5. String Pattern Matching 10.6. Mathematics 10.7. Internet Access 10.8. Dates and Times 10.9. Data Compression 10.10. Performance Measurement 10.11. Quality Control 10.12. Batteries Included 11. Brief Tour of the Standard Library — Part II 11.1. Output Formatting 11.2. Templating 11.3. Working with Binary Data Record Layouts 11.4. Multi-threading 11.5. Logging 11.6. Weak References 11.7. Tools for Working with Lists 11.8. Decimal Floating Point Arithmetic 12. Virtual Environments and Packages 12.1. Introduction 12.2. Creating Virtual Environments 12.3. Managing Packages with pip 13. What Now? 14. Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution 14.1. Tab Completion and History Editing 14.2. Alternatives to the Interactive Interpreter 15. Floating Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations 15.1. Representation Error 16. Appendix 16.1. Interactive Mode 16.1.1. Error Handling 16.1.2. Executable Python Scripts 16.1.3. The Interactive Startup File 16.1.4. The Customization Modules Python Setup and Usage 1. Command line and environment 1.1. Command line 1.1.1. Interface options 1.1.2. Generic options 1.1.3. Miscellaneous options 1.1.4. Options you shouldn’t use 1.2. Environment variables 1.2.1. Debug-mode variables 2. Using Python on Unix platforms 2.1. Getting and installing the latest version of Python 2.1.1. On Linux 2.1.2. On FreeBSD and OpenBSD 2.1.3. On OpenSolaris 2.2. Building Python 2.3. Python-related paths and files 2.4. Miscellaneous 2.5. Editors and IDEs 3. Using Python on Windows 3.1. Installing Python 3.1.1. Supported Versions 3.1.2. Installation Steps 3.1.3. Removing the MAX_PATH Limitation 3.1.4. Installing Without UI 3.1.5. Installing Without Downloading 3.1.6. Modifying an install 3.1.7. Other Platforms 3.2. Alternative bundles 3.3. Configuring Python 3.3.1. Excursus: Setting environment variables 3.3.2. Finding the Python executable 3.4. Python Launcher for Windows 3.4.1. Getting started 3.4.1.1. From the command-line 3.4.1.2. Virtual environments 3.4.1.3. From a script 3.4.1.4. From file associations 3.4.2. Shebang Lines 3.4.3. Arguments in shebang lines 3.4.4. Customization 3.4.4.1. Customization via INI files 3.4.4.2. Customizing default Python versions 3.4.5. Diagnostics 3.5. Finding modules 3.6. Additional modules 3.6.1. PyWin32 3.6.2. cx_Freeze 3.6.3. WConio 3.7. Compiling Python on Windows 3.8. Embedded Distribution 3.8.1. Python Application 3.8.2. Embedding Python 3.9. Other resources 4. Using Python on a Macintosh 4.1. Getting and Installing MacPython 4.1.1. How to run a Python script 4.1.2. Running scripts with a GUI 4.1.3. Configuration 4.2. The IDE 4.3. Installing Additional Python Packages 4.4. GUI Programming on the Mac 4.5. Distributing Python Applications on the Mac 4.6. Other Resources The Python Language Reference 1. Introduction 1.1. Alternate Implementations 1.2. Notation 2. Lexical analysis 2.1. Line structure 2.1.1. Logical lines 2.1.2. Physical lines 2.1.3. Comments 2.1.4. Encoding declarations 2.1.5. Explicit line joining 2.1.6. Implicit line joining 2.1.7. Blank lines 2.1.8. Indentation 2.1.9. Whitespace between tokens 2.2. Other tokens 2.3. Identifiers and keywords 2.3.1. Keywords 2.3.2. Reserved classes of identifiers 2.4. Literals 2.4.1. String and Bytes literals 2.4.2. String literal concatenation 2.4.3. Formatted string literals 2.4.4. Numeric literals 2.4.5. Integer literals 2.4.6. Floating point literals 2.4.7. Imaginary literals 2.5. Operators 2.6. Delimiters 3. Data model 3.1. Objects, values and types 3.2. The standard type hierarchy 3.3. Special method names 3.3.1. Basic customization 3.3.2. Customizing attribute access 3.3.2.1. Customizing module attribute access 3.3.2.2. Implementing Descriptors 3.3.2.3. Invoking Descriptors 3.3.2.4. __slots__ 3.3.2.4.1. Notes on using __slots__ 3.3.3. Customizing class creation 3.3.3.1. Metaclasses 3.3.3.2. Determining the appropriate metaclass 3.3.3.3. Preparing the class namespace 3.3.3.4. Executing the class body 3.3.3.5. Creating the class object 3.3.3.6. Metaclass example 3.3.4. Customizing instance and subclass checks 3.3.5. Emulating callable objects 3.3.6. Emulating container types 3.3.7. Emulating numeric types 3.3.8. With Statement Context Managers 3.3.9. Special method lookup 3.4. Coroutines 3.4.1. Awaitable Objects 3.4.2. Coroutine Objects 3.4.3. Asynchronous Iterators 3.4.4. Asynchronous Context Managers 4. Execution model 4.1. Structure of a program 4.2. Naming and binding 4.2.1. Binding of names 4.2.2. Resolution of names 4.2.3. Builtins and restricted execution 4.2.4. Interaction with dynamic features 4.3. Exceptions 5. The import system 5.1. importlib 5.2. Packages 5.2.1. Regular packages 5.2.2. Namespace packages 5.3. Searching 5.3.1. The module cache 5.3.2. Finders and loaders 5.3.3. Import hooks 5.3.4. The meta path 5.4. Loading 5.4.1. Loaders 5.4.2. Submodules 5.4.3. Module spec 5.4.4. Import-related module attributes 5.4.5. module.__path__ 5.4.6. Module reprs 5.5. The Path Based Finder 5.5.1. Path entry finders 5.5.2. Path entry finder protocol 5.6. Replacing the standard import system 5.7. Special considerations for __main__ 5.7.1. __main__.__spec__ 5.8. Open issues 5.9. References 6. Expressions 6.1. Arithmetic conversions 6.2. Atoms 6.2.1. Identifiers (Names) 6.2.2. Literals 6.2.3. Parenthesized forms 6.2.4. Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries 6.2.5. List displays 6.2.6. Set displays 6.2.7. Dictionary displays 6.2.8. Generator expressions 6.2.9. Yield expressions 6.2.9.1. Generator-iterator methods 6.2.9.2. Examples 6.2.9.3. Asynchronous generator functions 6.2.9.4. Asynchronous generator-iterator methods 6.3. Primaries 6.3.1. Attribute references 6.3.2. Subscriptions 6.3.3. Slicings 6.3.4. Calls 6.4. Await expression 6.5. The power operator 6.6. Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations 6.7. Binary arithmetic operations 6.8. Shifting operations 6.9. Binary bitwise operations 6.10. Comparisons 6.10.1. Value comparisons 6.10.2. Membership test operations 6.10.3. Identity comparisons 6.11. Boolean operations 6.12. Conditional expressions 6.13. Lambdas 6.14. Expression lists 6.15. Evaluation order 6.16. Operator precedence 7. Simple statements 7.1. Expression statements 7.2. Assignment statements 7.2.1. Augmented assignment statements 7.2.2. Annotated assignment statements 7.3. The assert statement 7.4. The pass statement 7.5. The del statement 7.6. The return statement 7.7. The yield statement 7.8. The raise statement 7.9. The break statement 7.10. The continue statement 7.11. The import statement 7.11.1. Future statements 7.12. The global statement 7.13. The nonlocal statement 8. Compound statements 8.1. The if statement 8.2. The while statement 8.3. The for statement 8.4. The try statement 8.5. The with statement 8.6. Function definitions 8.7. Class definitions 8.8. Coroutines 8.8.1. Coroutine function definition 8.8.2. The async for statement 8.8.3. The async with statement 9. Top-level components 9.1. Complete Python programs 9.2. File input 9.3. Interactive input 9.4. Expression input 10. Full Grammar specification The Python Standard Library 1. Introduction 2. Built-in Functions 3. Built-in Constants 3.1. Constants added by the site module 4. Built-in Types 4.1. Truth Value Testing 4.2. Boolean Operations — and, or, not 4.3. Comparisons 4.4. Numeric Types — int, float, complex 4.4.1. Bitwise Operations on Integer Types 4.4.2. Additional Methods on Integer Types 4.4.3. Additional Methods on Float 4.4.4. Hashing of numeric types 4.5. Iterator Types 4.5.1. Generator Types 4.6. Sequence Types — list, tuple, range 4.6.1. Common Sequence Operations 4.6.2. Immutable Sequence Types 4.6.3. Mutable Sequence Types 4.6.4. Lists 4.6.5. Tuples 4.6.6. Ranges 4.7. Text Sequence Type — str 4.7.1. String Methods 4.7.2. printf-style String Formatting 4.8. Binary Sequence Types — bytes, bytearray, memoryview 4.8.1. Bytes Objects 4.8.2. Bytearray Objects 4.8.3. Bytes and Bytearray Operations 4.8.4. printf-style Bytes Formatting 4.8.5. Memory Views 4.9. Set Types — set, frozenset 4.10. Mapping Types — dict 4.10.1. Dictionary view objects 4.11. Context Manager Types 4.12. Other Built-in Types 4.12.1. Modules 4.12.2. Classes and Class Instances 4.12.3. Functions 4.12.4. Methods 4.12.5. Code Objects 4.12.6. Type Objects 4.12.7. The Null Object 4.12.8. The Ellipsis Object 4.12.9. The NotImplemented Object 4.12.10. Boolean Values 4.12.11. Internal Objects 4.13. Special Attributes 5. Built-in Exceptions 5.1. Base classes 5.2. Concrete exceptions 5.2.1. OS exceptions 5.3. Warnings 5.4. Exception hierarchy 6. Text Processing Services 6.1. string — Common string operations 6.1.1. String constants 6.1.2. Custom String Formatting 6.1.3. Format String Syntax 6.1.3.1. Format Specification Mini-Language 6.1.3.2. Format examples 6.1.4. Template strings 6.1.5. Helper functions 6.2. re — Regular expression operations 6.2.1. Regular Expression Syntax 6.2.2. Module Contents 6.2.3. Regular Expression Objects 6.2.4. Match Objects 6.2.5. Regular Expression Examples 6.2.5.1. Checking for a Pair 6.2.5.2. Simulating scanf() 6.2.5.3. search() vs. match() 6.2.5.4. Making a Phonebook 6.2.5.5. Text Munging 6.2.5.6. Finding all Adverbs 6.2.5.7. Finding all Adverbs and their Positions 6.2.5.8. Raw String Notation 6.2.5.9. Writing a Tokenizer 6.3. difflib — Helpers for computing deltas 6.3.1. SequenceMatcher Objects 6.3.2. SequenceMatcher Examples 6.3.3. Differ Objects 6.3.4. Differ Example 6.3.5. A command-line interface to difflib 6.4. textwrap — Text wrapping and filling 6.5. unicodedata — Unicode Database 6.6. stringprep — Internet String Preparation 6.7. readline — GNU readline interface 6.7.1. Init file 6.7.2. Line buffer 6.7.3. History file 6.7.4. History list 6.7.5. Startup hooks 6.7.6. Completion 6.7.7. Example 6.8. rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline 6.8.1. Completer Objects 7. Binary Data Services 7.1. struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data 7.1.1. Functions and Exceptions 7.1.2. Format Strings 7.1.2.1. Byte Order, Size, and Alignment 7.1.2.2. Format Characters 7.1.2.3. Examples 7.1.3. Classes 7.2. codecs — Codec registry and base classes 7.2.1. Codec Base Classes 7.2.1.1. Error Handlers 7.2.1.2. Stateless Encoding and Decoding 7.2.1.3. Incremental Encoding and Decoding 7.2.1.3.1. IncrementalEncoder Objects 7.2.1.3.2. IncrementalDecoder Objects 7.2.1.4. Stream Encoding and Decoding 7.2.1.4.1. StreamWriter Objects 7.2.1.4.2. StreamReader Objects 7.2.1.4.3. StreamReaderWriter Objects 7.2.1.4.4. StreamRecoder Objects 7.2.2. Encodings and Unicode 7.2.3. Standard Encodings 7.2.4. Python Specific Encodings 7.2.4.1. Text Encodings 7.2.4.2. Binary Transforms 7.2.4.3. Text Transforms 7.2.5. encodings.idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications 7.2.6. encodings.mbcs — Windows ANSI codepage 7.2.7. encodings.utf_8_sig — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature 8. Data Types 8.1. datetime — Basic date and time types 8.1.1. Available Types 8.1.2. timedelta Objects 8.1.3. date Objects 8.1.4. datetime Objects 8.1.5. time Objects 8.1.6. tzinfo Objects 8.1.7. timezone Objects 8.1.8. strftime() and strptime() Behavior 8.2. calendar — General calendar-related functions 8.3. collections — Container datatypes 8.3.1. ChainMap objects 8.3.1.1. ChainMap Examples and Recipes 8.3.2. Counter objects 8.3.3. deque objects 8.3.3.1. deque Recipes 8.3.4. defaultdict objects 8.3.4.1. defaultdict Examples 8.3.5. namedtuple() Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields 8.3.6. OrderedDict objects 8.3.6.1. OrderedDict Examples and Recipes 8.3.7. UserDict objects 8.3.8. UserList objects 8.3.9. UserString objects 8.4. collections.abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers 8.4.1. Collections Abstract Base Classes 8.5. heapq — Heap queue algorithm 8.5.1. Basic Examples 8.5.2. Priority Queue Implementation Notes 8.5.3. Theory 8.6. bisect — Array bisection algorithm 8.6.1. Searching Sorted Lists 8.6.2. Other Examples 8.7. array — Efficient arrays of numeric values 8.8. weakref — Weak references 8.8.1. Weak Reference Objects 8.8.2. Example 8.8.3. Finalizer Objects 8.8.4. Comparing finalizers with __del__() methods 8.9. types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types 8.9.1. Dynamic Type Creation 8.9.2. Standard Interpreter Types 8.9.3. Additional Utility Classes and Functions 8.9.4. Coroutine Utility Functions 8.10. copy — Shallow and deep copy operations 8.11. pprint — Data pretty printer 8.11.1. PrettyPrinter Objects 8.11.2. Example 8.12. reprlib — Alternate repr() implementation 8.12.1. Repr Objects 8.12.2. Subclassing Repr Objects 8.13. enum — Support for enumerations 8.13.1. Module Contents 8.13.2. Creating an Enum 8.13.3. Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes 8.13.4. Duplicating enum members and values 8.13.5. Ensuring unique enumeration values 8.13.6. Using automatic values 8.13.7. Iteration 8.13.8. Comparisons 8.13.9. Allowed members and attributes of enumerations 8.13.10. Restricted subclassing of enumerations 8.13.11. Pickling 8.13.12. Functional API 8.13.13. Derived Enumerations 8.13.13.1. IntEnum 8.13.13.2. IntFlag 8.13.13.3. Flag 8.13.13.4. Others 8.13.14. Interesting examples 8.13.14.1. Omitting values 8.13.14.1.1. Using auto 8.13.14.1.2. Using object 8.13.14.1.3. Using a descriptive string 8.13.14.1.4. Using a custom __new__() 8.13.14.2. OrderedEnum 8.13.14.3. DuplicateFreeEnum 8.13.14.4. Planet 8.13.15. How are Enums different? 8.13.15.1. Enum Classes 8.13.15.2. Enum Members (aka instances) 8.13.15.3. Finer Points 8.13.15.3.1. Supported __dunder__ names 8.13.15.3.2. Supported _sunder_ names 8.13.15.3.3. Enum member type 8.13.15.3.4. Boolean value of Enum classes and members 8.13.15.3.5. Enum classes with methods 8.13.15.3.6. Combining members of Flag 9. Numeric and Mathematical Modules 9.1. numbers — Numeric abstract base classes 9.1.1. The numeric tower 9.1.2. Notes for type implementors 9.1.2.1. Adding More Numeric ABCs 9.1.2.2. Implementing the arithmetic operations 9.2. math — Mathematical functions 9.2.1. Number-theoretic and representation functions 9.2.2. Power and logarithmic functions 9.2.3. Trigonometric functions 9.2.4. Angular conversion 9.2.5. Hyperbolic functions 9.2.6. Special functions 9.2.7. Constants 9.3. cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers 9.3.1. Conversions to and from polar coordinates 9.3.2. Power and logarithmic functions 9.3.3. Trigonometric functions 9.3.4. Hyperbolic functions 9.3.5. Classification functions 9.3.6. Constants 9.4. decimal — Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic 9.4.1. Quick-start Tutorial 9.4.2. Decimal objects 9.4.2.1. Logical operands 9.4.3. Context objects 9.4.4. Constants 9.4.5. Rounding modes 9.4.6. Signals 9.4.7. Floating Point Notes 9.4.7.1. Mitigating round-off error with increased precision 9.4.7.2. Special values 9.4.8. Working with threads 9.4.9. Recipes 9.4.10. Decimal FAQ 9.5. fractions — Rational numbers 9.6. random — Generate pseudo-random numbers 9.6.1. Bookkeeping functions 9.6.2. Functions for integers 9.6.3. Functions for sequences 9.6.4. Real-valued distributions 9.6.5. Alternative Generator 9.6.6. Notes on Reproducibility 9.6.7. Examples and Recipes 9.7. statistics — Mathematical statistics functions 9.7.1. Averages and measures of central location 9.7.2. Measures of spread 9.7.3. Function details 9.7.4. Exceptions 10. Functional Programming Modules 10.1. itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping 10.1.1. Itertool functions 10.1.2. Itertools Recipes 10.2. functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects 10.2.1. partial Objects 10.3. operator — Standard operators as functions 10.3.1. Mapping Operators to Functions 10.3.2. Inplace Operators 11. File and Directory Access 11.1. pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths 11.1.1. Basic use 11.1.2. Pure paths 11.1.2.1. General properties 11.1.2.2. Operators 11.1.2.3. Accessing individual parts 11.1.2.4. Methods and properties 11.1.3. Concrete paths 11.1.3.1. Methods 11.2. os.path — Common pathname manipulations 11.3. fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams 11.4. stat — Interpreting stat() results 11.5. filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons 11.5.1. The dircmp class 11.6. tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories 11.6.1. Examples 11.6.2. Deprecated functions and variables 11.7. glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion 11.8. fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching 11.9. linecache — Random access to text lines 11.10. shutil — High-level file operations 11.10.1. Directory and files operations 11.10.1.1. copytree example 11.10.1.2. rmtree example 11.10.2. Archiving operations 11.10.2.1. Archiving example 11.10.3. Querying the size of the output terminal 11.11. macpath — Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions 12. Data Persistence 12.1. pickle — Python object serialization 12.1.1. Relationship to other Python modules 12.1.1.1. Comparison with marshal 12.1.1.2. Comparison with json 12.1.2. Data stream format 12.1.3. Module Interface 12.1.4. What can be pickled and unpickled? 12.1.5. Pickling Class Instances 12.1.5.1. Persistence of External Objects 12.1.5.2. Dispatch Tables 12.1.5.3. Handling Stateful Objects 12.1.6. Restricting Globals 12.1.7. Performance 12.1.8. Examples 12.2. copyreg — Register pickle support functions 12.2.1. Example 12.3. shelve — Python object persistence 12.3.1. Restrictions 12.3.2. Example 12.4. marshal — Internal Python object serialization 12.5. dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases” 12.5.1. dbm.gnu — GNU’s reinterpretation of dbm 12.5.2. dbm.ndbm — Interface based on ndbm 12.5.3. dbm.dumb — Portable DBM implementation 12.6. sqlite3 — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases 12.6.1. Module functions and constants 12.6.2. Connection Objects 12.6.3. Cursor Objects 12.6.4. Row Objects 12.6.5. Exceptions 12.6.6. SQLite and Python types 12.6.6.1. Introduction 12.6.6.2. Using adapters to store additional Python types in SQLite databases 12.6.6.2.1. Letting your object adapt itself 12.6.6.2.2. Registering an adapter callable 12.6.6.3. Converting SQLite values to custom Python types 12.6.6.4. Default adapters and converters 12.6.7. Controlling Transactions 12.6.8. Using sqlite3 efficiently 12.6.8.1. Using shortcut methods 12.6.8.2. Accessing columns by name instead of by index 12.6.8.3. Using the connection as a context manager 12.6.9. Common issues 12.6.9.1. Multithreading 13. Data Compression and Archiving 13.1. zlib — Compression compatible with gzip 13.2. gzip — Support for gzip files 13.2.1. Examples of usage 13.3. bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression 13.3.1. (De)compression of files 13.3.2. Incremental (de)compression 13.3.3. One-shot (de)compression 13.4. lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm 13.4.1. Reading and writing compressed files 13.4.2. Compressing and decompressing data in memory 13.4.3. Miscellaneous 13.4.4. Specifying custom filter chains 13.4.5. Examples 13.5. zipfile — Work with ZIP archives 13.5.1. ZipFile Objects 13.5.2. PyZipFile Objects 13.5.3. ZipInfo Objects 13.5.4. Command-Line Interface 13.5.4.1. Command-line options 13.6. tarfile — Read and write tar archive files 13.6.1. TarFile Objects 13.6.2. TarInfo Objects 13.6.3. Command-Line Interface 13.6.3.1. Command-line options 13.6.4. Examples 13.6.5. Supported tar formats 13.6.6. Unicode issues 14. File Formats 14.1. csv — CSV File Reading and Writing 14.1.1. Module Contents 14.1.2. Dialects and Formatting Parameters 14.1.3. Reader Objects 14.1.4. Writer Objects 14.1.5. Examples 14.2. configparser — Configuration file parser 14.2.1. Quick Start 14.2.2. Supported Datatypes 14.2.3. Fallback Values 14.2.4. Supported INI File Structure 14.2.5. Interpolation of values 14.2.6. Mapping Protocol Access 14.2.7. Customizing Parser Behaviour 14.2.8. Legacy API Examples 14.2.9. ConfigParser Objects 14.2.10. RawConfigParser Objects 14.2.11. Exceptions 14.3. netrc — netrc file processing 14.3.1. netrc Objects 14.4. xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data 14.4.1. Packer Objects 14.4.2. Unpacker Objects 14.4.3. Exceptions 14.5. plistlib — Generate and parse Mac OS X .plist files 14.5.1. Examples 15. Cryptographic Services 15.1. hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests 15.1.1. Hash algorithms 15.1.2. SHAKE variable length digests 15.1.3. Key derivation 15.1.4. BLAKE2 15.1.4.1. Creating hash objects 15.1.4.2. Constants 15.1.4.3. Examples 15.1.4.3.1. Simple hashing 15.1.4.3.2. Using different digest sizes 15.1.4.3.3. Keyed hashing 15.1.4.3.4. Randomized hashing 15.1.4.3.5. Personalization 15.1.4.3.6. Tree mode 15.1.4.4. Credits 15.2. hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication 15.3. secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets 15.3.1. Random numbers 15.3.2. Generating tokens 15.3.2.1. How many bytes should tokens use? 15.3.3. Other functions 15.3.4. Recipes and best practices 16. Generic Operating System Services 16.1. os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces 16.1.1. File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment Variables 16.1.2. Process Parameters 16.1.3. File Object Creation 16.1.4. File Descriptor Operations 16.1.4.1. Querying the size of a terminal 16.1.4.2. Inheritance of File Descriptors 16.1.5. Files and Directories 16.1.5.1. Linux extended attributes 16.1.6. Process Management 16.1.7. Interface to the scheduler 16.1.8. Miscellaneous System Information 16.1.9. Random numbers 16.2. io — Core tools for working with streams 16.2.1. Overview 16.2.1.1. Text I/O 16.2.1.2. Binary I/O 16.2.1.3. Raw I/O 16.2.2. High-level Module Interface 16.2.2.1. In-memory streams 16.2.3. Class hierarchy 16.2.3.1. I/O Base Classes 16.2.3.2. Raw File I/O 16.2.3.3. Buffered Streams 16.2.3.4. Text I/O 16.2.4. Performance 16.2.4.1. Binary I/O 16.2.4.2. Text I/O 16.2.4.3. Multi-threading 16.2.4.4. Reentrancy 16.3. time — Time access and conversions 16.3.1. Functions 16.3.2. Clock ID Constants 16.3.3. Timezone Constants 16.4. argparse — Parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commands 16.4.1. Example 16.4.1.1. Creating a parser 16.4.1.2. Adding arguments 16.4.1.3. Parsing arguments 16.4.2. ArgumentParser objects 16.4.2.1. prog 16.4.2.2. usage 16.4.2.3. description 16.4.2.4. epilog 16.4.2.5. parents 16.4.2.6. formatter_class 16.4.2.7. prefix_chars 16.4.2.8. fromfile_prefix_chars 16.4.2.9. argument_default 16.4.2.10. allow_abbrev 16.4.2.11. conflict_handler 16.4.2.12. add_help 16.4.3. The add_argument() method 16.4.3.1. name or flags 16.4.3.2. action 16.4.3.3. nargs 16.4.3.4. const 16.4.3.5. default 16.4.3.6. type 16.4.3.7. choices 16.4.3.8. required 16.4.3.9. help 16.4.3.10. metavar 16.4.3.11. dest 16.4.3.12. Action classes 16.4.4. The parse_args() method 16.4.4.1. Option value syntax 16.4.4.2. Invalid arguments 16.4.4.3. Arguments containing - 16.4.4.4. Argument abbreviations (prefix matching) 16.4.4.5. Beyond sys.argv 16.4.4.6. The Namespace object 16.4.5. Other utilities 16.4.5.1. Sub-commands 16.4.5.2. FileType objects 16.4.5.3. Argument groups 16.4.5.4. Mutual exclusion 16.4.5.5. Parser defaults 16.4.5.6. Printing help 16.4.5.7. Partial parsing 16.4.5.8. Customizing file parsing 16.4.5.9. Exiting methods 16.4.6. Upgrading optparse code 16.5. getopt — C-style parser for command line options 16.6. logging — Logging facility for Python 16.6.1. Logger Objects 16.6.2. Logging Levels 16.6.3. Handler Objects 16.6.4. Formatter Objects 16.6.5. Filter Objects 16.6.6. LogRecord Objects 16.6.7. LogRecord attributes 16.6.8. LoggerAdapter Objects 16.6.9. Thread Safety 16.6.10. Module-Level Functions 16.6.11. Module-Level Attributes 16.6.12. Integration with the warnings module 16.7. logging.config — Logging configuration 16.7.1. Configuration functions 16.7.2. Configuration dictionary schema 16.7.2.1. Dictionary Schema Details 16.7.2.2. Incremental Configuration 16.7.2.3. Object connections 16.7.2.4. User-defined objects 16.7.2.5. Access to external objects 16.7.2.6. Access to internal objects 16.7.2.7. Import resolution and custom importers 16.7.3. Configuration file format 16.8. logging.handlers — Logging handlers 16.8.1. StreamHandler 16.8.2. FileHandler 16.8.3. NullHandler 16.8.4. WatchedFileHandler 16.8.5. BaseRotatingHandler 16.8.6. RotatingFileHandler 16.8.7. TimedRotatingFileHandler 16.8.8. SocketHandler 16.8.9. DatagramHandler 16.8.10. SysLogHandler 16.8.11. NTEventLogHandler 16.8.12. SMTPHandler 16.8.13. MemoryHandler 16.8.14. HTTPHandler 16.8.15. QueueHandler 16.8.16. QueueListener 16.9. getpass — Portable password input 16.10. curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays 16.10.1. Functions 16.10.2. Window Objects 16.10.3. Constants 16.11. curses.textpad — Text input widget for curses programs 16.11.1. Textbox objects 16.12. curses.ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters 16.13. curses.panel — A panel stack extension for curses 16.13.1. Functions 16.13.2. Panel Objects 16.14. platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data 16.14.1. Cross Platform 16.14.2. Java Platform 16.14.3. Windows Platform 16.14.3.1. Win95/98 specific 16.14.4. Mac OS Platform 16.14.5. Unix Platforms 16.15. errno — Standard errno system symbols 16.16. ctypes — A foreign function library for Python 16.16.1. ctypes tutorial 16.16.1.1. Loading dynamic link libraries 16.16.1.2. Accessing functions from loaded dlls 16.16.1.3. Calling functions 16.16.1.4. Fundamental data types 16.16.1.5. Calling functions, continued 16.16.1.6. Calling functions with your own custom data types 16.16.1.7. Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes) 16.16.1.8. Return types 16.16.1.9. Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by reference) 16.16.1.10. Structures and unions 16.16.1.11. Structure/union alignment and byte order 16.16.1.12. Bit fields in structures and unions 16.16.1.13. Arrays 16.16.1.14. Pointers 16.16.1.15. Type conversions 16.16.1.16. Incomplete Types 16.16.1.17. Callback functions 16.16.1.18. Accessing values exported from dlls 16.16.1.19. Surprises 16.16.1.20. Variable-sized data types 16.16.2. ctypes reference 16.16.2.1. Finding shared libraries 16.16.2.2. Loading shared libraries 16.16.2.3. Foreign functions 16.16.2.4. Function prototypes 16.16.2.5. Utility functions 16.16.2.6. Data types 16.16.2.7. Fundamental data types 16.16.2.8. Structured data types 16.16.2.9. Arrays and pointers 17. Concurrent Execution 17.1. threading — Thread-based parallelism 17.1.1. Thread-Local Data 17.1.2. Thread Objects 17.1.3. Lock Objects 17.1.4. RLock Objects 17.1.5. Condition Objects 17.1.6. Semaphore Objects 17.1.6.1. Semaphore Example 17.1.7. Event Objects 17.1.8. Timer Objects 17.1.9. Barrier Objects 17.1.10. Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the with statement 17.2. multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism 17.2.1. Introduction 17.2.1.1. The Process class 17.2.1.2. Contexts and start methods 17.2.1.3. Exchanging objects between processes 17.2.1.4. Synchronization between processes 17.2.1.5. Sharing state between processes 17.2.1.6. Using a pool of workers 17.2.2. Reference 17.2.2.1. Process and exceptions 17.2.2.2. Pipes and Queues 17.2.2.3. Miscellaneous 17.2.2.4. Connection Objects 17.2.2.5. Synchronization primitives 17.2.2.6. Shared ctypes Objects 17.2.2.6.1. The multiprocessing.sharedctypes module 17.2.2.7. Managers 17.2.2.7.1. Customized managers 17.2.2.7.2. Using a remote manager 17.2.2.8. Proxy Objects 17.2.2.8.1. Cleanup 17.2.2.9. Process Pools 17.2.2.10. Listeners and Clients 17.2.2.10.1. Address Formats 17.2.2.11. Authentication keys 17.2.2.12. Logging 17.2.2.13. The multiprocessing.dummy module 17.2.3. Programming guidelines 17.2.3.1. All start methods 17.2.3.2. The spawn and forkserver start methods 17.2.4. Examples 17.3. The concurrent package 17.4. concurrent.futures — Launching parallel tasks 17.4.1. Executor Objects 17.4.2. ThreadPoolExecutor 17.4.2.1. ThreadPoolExecutor Example 17.4.3. ProcessPoolExecutor 17.4.3.1. ProcessPoolExecutor Example 17.4.4. Future Objects 17.4.5. Module Functions 17.4.6. Exception classes 17.5. subprocess — Subprocess management 17.5.1. Using the subprocess Module 17.5.1.1. Frequently Used Arguments 17.5.1.2. Popen Constructor 17.5.1.3. Exceptions 17.5.2. Security Considerations 17.5.3. Popen Objects 17.5.4. Windows Popen Helpers 17.5.4.1. Constants 17.5.5. Older high-level API 17.5.6. Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module 17.5.6.1. Replacing /bin/sh shell backquote 17.5.6.2. Replacing shell pipeline 17.5.6.3. Replacing os.system() 17.5.6.4. Replacing the os.spawn family 17.5.6.5. Replacing os.popen(), os.popen2(), os.popen3() 17.5.6.6. Replacing functions from the popen2 module 17.5.7. Legacy Shell Invocation Functions 17.5.8. Notes 17.5.8.1. Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows 17.6. sched — Event scheduler 17.6.1. Scheduler Objects 17.7. queue — A synchronized queue class 17.7.1. Queue Objects 17.8. dummy_threading — Drop-in replacement for the threading module 17.9. _thread — Low-level threading API 17.10. _dummy_thread — Drop-in replacement for the _thread module 18. Interprocess Communication and Networking 18.1. socket — Low-level networking interface 18.1.1. Socket families 18.1.2. Module contents 18.1.2.1. Exceptions 18.1.2.2. Constants 18.1.2.3. Functions 18.1.2.3.1. Creating sockets 18.1.2.3.2. Other functions 18.1.3. Socket Objects 18.1.4. Notes on socket timeouts 18.1.4.1. Timeouts and the connect method 18.1.4.2. Timeouts and the accept method 18.1.5. Example 18.2. ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects 18.2.1. Functions, Constants, and Exceptions 18.2.1.1. Socket creation 18.2.1.2. Context creation 18.2.1.3. Random generation 18.2.1.4. Certificate handling 18.2.1.5. Constants 18.2.2. SSL Sockets 18.2.3. SSL Contexts 18.2.4. Certificates 18.2.4.1. Certificate chains 18.2.4.2. CA certificates 18.2.4.3. Combined key and certificate 18.2.4.4. Self-signed certificates 18.2.5. Examples 18.2.5.1. Testing for SSL support 18.2.5.2. Client-side operation 18.2.5.3. Server-side operation 18.2.6. Notes on non-blocking sockets 18.2.7. Memory BIO Support 18.2.8. SSL session 18.2.9. Security considerations 18.2.9.1. Best defaults 18.2.9.2. Manual settings 18.2.9.2.1. Verifying certificates 18.2.9.2.2. Protocol versions 18.2.9.2.3. Cipher selection 18.2.9.3. Multi-processing 18.2.10. LibreSSL support 18.3. select — Waiting for I/O completion 18.3.1. /dev/poll Polling Objects 18.3.2. Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects 18.3.3. Polling Objects 18.3.4. Kqueue Objects 18.3.5. Kevent Objects 18.4. selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing 18.4.1. Introduction 18.4.2. Classes 18.4.3. Examples 18.5. asyncio — Asynchronous I/O, event loop, coroutines and tasks 18.5.1. Base Event Loop 18.5.1.1. Run an event loop 18.5.1.2. Calls 18.5.1.3. Delayed calls 18.5.1.4. Futures 18.5.1.5. Tasks 18.5.1.6. Creating connections 18.5.1.7. Creating listening connections 18.5.1.8. Watch file descriptors 18.5.1.9. Low-level socket operations 18.5.1.10. Resolve host name 18.5.1.11. Connect pipes 18.5.1.12. UNIX signals 18.5.1.13. Executor 18.5.1.14. Error Handling API 18.5.1.15. Debug mode 18.5.1.16. Server 18.5.1.17. Handle 18.5.1.18. Event loop examples 18.5.1.18.1. Hello World with call_soon() 18.5.1.18.2. Display the current date with call_later() 18.5.1.18.3. Watch a file descriptor for read events 18.5.1.18.4. Set signal handlers for SIGINT and SIGTERM 18.5.2. Event loops 18.5.2.1. Event loop functions 18.5.2.2. Available event loops 18.5.2.3. Platform support 18.5.2.3.1. Windows 18.5.2.3.2. Mac OS X 18.5.2.4. Event loop policies and the default policy 18.5.2.5. Event loop policy interface 18.5.2.6. Access to the global loop policy 18.5.2.7. Customizing the event loop policy 18.5.3. Tasks and coroutines 18.5.3.1. Coroutines 18.5.3.1.1. Example: Hello World coroutine 18.5.3.1.2. Example: Coroutine displaying the current date 18.5.3.1.3. Example: Chain coroutines 18.5.3.2. InvalidStateError 18.5.3.3. TimeoutError 18.5.3.4. Future 18.5.3.4.1. Example: Future with run_until_complete() 18.5.3.4.2. Example: Future with run_forever() 18.5.3.5. Task 18.5.3.5.1. Example: Parallel execution of tasks 18.5.3.6. Task functions 18.5.4. Transports and protocols (callback based API) 18.5.4.1. Transports 18.5.4.1.1. BaseTransport 18.5.4.1.2. ReadTransport 18.5.4.1.3. WriteTransport 18.5.4.1.4. DatagramTransport 18.5.4.1.5. BaseSubprocessTransport 18.5.4.2. Protocols 18.5.4.2.1. Protocol classes 18.5.4.2.2. Connection callbacks 18.5.4.2.3. Streaming protocols 18.5.4.2.4. Datagram protocols 18.5.4.2.5. Flow control callbacks 18.5.4.2.6. Coroutines and protocols 18.5.4.3. Protocol examples 18.5.4.3.1. TCP echo client protocol 18.5.4.3.2. TCP echo server protocol 18.5.4.3.3. UDP echo client protocol 18.5.4.3.4. UDP echo server protocol 18.5.4.3.5. Register an open socket to wait for data using a protocol 18.5.5. Streams (coroutine based API) 18.5.5.1. Stream functions 18.5.5.2. StreamReader 18.5.5.3. StreamWriter 18.5.5.4. StreamReaderProtocol 18.5.5.5. IncompleteReadError 18.5.5.6. LimitOverrunError 18.5.5.7. Stream examples 18.5.5.7.1. TCP echo client using streams 18.5.5.7.2. TCP echo server using streams 18.5.5.7.3. Get HTTP headers 18.5.5.7.4. Register an open socket to wait for data using streams 18.5.6. Subprocess 18.5.6.1. Windows event loop 18.5.6.2. Create a subprocess: high-level API using Process 18.5.6.3. Create a subprocess: low-level API using subprocess.Popen 18.5.6.4. Constants 18.5.6.5. Process 18.5.6.6. Subprocess and threads 18.5.6.7. Subprocess examples 18.5.6.7.1. Subprocess using transport and protocol 18.5.6.7.2. Subprocess using streams 18.5.7. Synchronization primitives 18.5.7.1. Locks 18.5.7.1.1. Lock 18.5.7.1.2. Event 18.5.7.1.3. Condition 18.5.7.2. Semaphores 18.5.7.2.1. Semaphore 18.5.7.2.2. BoundedSemaphore 18.5.8. Queues 18.5.8.1. Queue 18.5.8.2. PriorityQueue 18.5.8.3. LifoQueue 18.5.8.3.1. Exceptions 18.5.9. Develop with asyncio 18.5.9.1. Debug mode of asyncio 18.5.9.2. Cancellation 18.5.9.3. Concurrency and multithreading 18.5.9.4. Handle blocking functions correctly 18.5.9.5. Logging 18.5.9.6. Detect coroutine objects never scheduled 18.5.9.7. Detect exceptions never consumed 18.5.9.8. Chain coroutines correctly 18.5.9.9. Pending task destroyed 18.5.9.10. Close transports and event loops 18.6. asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler 18.6.1. asyncore Example basic HTTP client 18.6.2. asyncore Example basic echo server 18.7. asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler 18.7.1. asynchat Example 18.8. signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events 18.8.1. General rules 18.8.1.1. Execution of Python signal handlers 18.8.1.2. Signals and threads 18.8.2. Module contents 18.8.3. Example 18.9. mmap — Memory-mapped file support 19. Internet Data Handling 19.1. email — An email and MIME handling package 19.1.1. email.message: Representing an email message 19.1.2. email.parser: Parsing email messages 19.1.2.1. FeedParser API 19.1.2.2. Parser API 19.1.2.3. Additional notes 19.1.3. email.generator: Generating MIME documents 19.1.4. email.policy: Policy Objects 19.1.5. email.errors: Exception and Defect classes 19.1.6. email.headerregistry: Custom Header Objects 19.1.7. email.contentmanager: Managing MIME Content 19.1.7.1. Content Manager Instances 19.1.8. email: Examples 19.1.9. email.message.Message: Representing an email message using the compat32 API 19.1.10. email.mime: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch 19.1.11. email.header: Internationalized headers 19.1.12. email.charset: Representing character sets 19.1.13. email.encoders: Encoders 19.1.14. email.utils: Miscellaneous utilities 19.1.15. email.iterators: Iterators 19.2. json — JSON encoder and decoder 19.2.1. Basic Usage 19.2.2. Encoders and Decoders 19.2.3. Exceptions 19.2.4. Standard Compliance and Interoperability 19.2.4.1. Character Encodings 19.2.4.2. Infinite and NaN Number Values 19.2.4.3. Repeated Names Within an Object 19.2.4.4. Top-level Non-Object, Non-Array Values 19.2.4.5. Implementation Limitations 19.2.5. Command Line Interface 19.2.5.1. Command line options 19.3. mailcap — Mailcap file handling 19.4. mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats 19.4.1. Mailbox objects 19.4.1.1. Maildir 19.4.1.2. mbox 19.4.1.3. MH 19.4.1.4. Babyl 19.4.1.5. MMDF 19.4.2. Message objects 19.4.2.1. MaildirMessage 19.4.2.2. mboxMessage 19.4.2.3. MHMessage 19.4.2.4. BabylMessage 19.4.2.5. MMDFMessage 19.4.3. Exceptions 19.4.4. Examples 19.5. mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types 19.5.1. MimeTypes Objects 19.6. base64 — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings 19.7. binhex — Encode and decode binhex4 files 19.7.1. Notes 19.8. binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII 19.9. quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data 19.10. uu — Encode and decode uuencode files 20. Structured Markup Processing Tools 20.1. html — HyperText Markup Language support 20.2. html.parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser 20.2.1. Example HTML Parser Application 20.2.2. HTMLParser Methods 20.2.3. Examples 20.3. html.entities — Definitions of HTML general entities 20.4. XML Processing Modules 20.4.1. XML vulnerabilities 20.4.2. The defusedxml and defusedexpat Packages 20.5. xml.etree.ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API 20.5.1. Tutorial 20.5.1.1. XML tree and elements 20.5.1.2. Parsing XML 20.5.1.3. Pull API for non-blocking parsing 20.5.1.4. Finding interesting elements 20.5.1.5. Modifying an XML File 20.5.1.6. Building XML documents 20.5.1.7. Parsing XML with Namespaces 20.5.1.8. Additional resources 20.5.2. XPath support 20.5.2.1. Example 20.5.2.2. Supported XPath syntax 20.5.3. Reference 20.5.3.1. Functions 20.5.3.2. Element Objects 20.5.3.3. ElementTree Objects 20.5.3.4. QName Objects 20.5.3.5. TreeBuilder Objects 20.5.3.6. XMLParser Objects 20.5.3.7. XMLPullParser Objects 20.5.3.8. Exceptions 20.6. xml.dom — The Document Object Model API 20.6.1. Module Contents 20.6.2. Objects in the DOM 20.6.2.1. DOMImplementation Objects 20.6.2.2. Node Objects 20.6.2.3. NodeList Objects 20.6.2.4. DocumentType Objects 20.6.2.5. Document Objects 20.6.2.6. Element Objects 20.6.2.7. Attr Objects 20.6.2.8. NamedNodeMap Objects 20.6.2.9. Comment Objects 20.6.2.10. Text and CDATASection Objects 20.6.2.11. ProcessingInstruction Objects 20.6.2.12. Exceptions 20.6.3. Conformance 20.6.3.1. Type Mapping 20.6.3.2. Accessor Methods 20.7. xml.dom.minidom — Minimal DOM implementation 20.7.1. DOM Objects 20.7.2. DOM Example 20.7.3. minidom and the DOM standard 20.8. xml.dom.pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees 20.8.1. DOMEventStream Objects 20.9. xml.sax — Support for SAX2 parsers 20.9.1. SAXException Objects 20.10. xml.sax.handler — Base classes for SAX handlers 20.10.1. ContentHandler Objects 20.10.2. DTDHandler Objects 20.10.3. EntityResolver Objects 20.10.4. ErrorHandler Objects 20.11. xml.sax.saxutils — SAX Utilities 20.12. xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers 20.12.1. XMLReader Objects 20.12.2. IncrementalParser Objects 20.12.3. Locator Objects 20.12.4. InputSource Objects 20.12.5. The Attributes Interface 20.12.6. The AttributesNS Interface 20.13. xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat 20.13.1. XMLParser Objects 20.13.2. ExpatError Exceptions 20.13.3. Example 20.13.4. Content Model Descriptions 20.13.5. Expat error constants 21. Internet Protocols and Support 21.1. webbrowser — Convenient Web-browser controller 21.1.1. Browser Controller Objects 21.2. cgi — Common Gateway Interface support 21.2.1. Introduction 21.2.2. Using the cgi module 21.2.3. Higher Level Interface 21.2.4. Functions 21.2.5. Caring about security 21.2.6. Installing your CGI script on a Unix system 21.2.7. Testing your CGI script 21.2.8. Debugging CGI scripts 21.2.9. Common problems and solutions 21.3. cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts 21.4. wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation 21.4.1. wsgiref.util – WSGI environment utilities 21.4.2. wsgiref.headers – WSGI response header tools 21.4.3. wsgiref.simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server 21.4.4. wsgiref.validate — WSGI conformance checker 21.4.5. wsgiref.handlers – server/gateway base classes 21.4.6. Examples 21.5. urllib — URL handling modules 21.6. urllib.request — Extensible library for opening URLs 21.6.1. Request Objects 21.6.2. OpenerDirector Objects 21.6.3. BaseHandler Objects 21.6.4. HTTPRedirectHandler Objects 21.6.5. HTTPCookieProcessor Objects 21.6.6. ProxyHandler Objects 21.6.7. HTTPPasswordMgr Objects 21.6.8. HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects 21.6.9. AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects 21.6.10. HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects 21.6.11. ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects 21.6.12. AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects 21.6.13. HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects 21.6.14. ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects 21.6.15. HTTPHandler Objects 21.6.16. HTTPSHandler Objects 21.6.17. FileHandler Objects 21.6.18. DataHandler Objects 21.6.19. FTPHandler Objects 21.6.20. CacheFTPHandler Objects 21.6.21. UnknownHandler Objects 21.6.22. HTTPErrorProcessor Objects 21.6.23. Examples 21.6.24. Legacy interface 21.6.25. urllib.request Restrictions 21.7. urllib.response — Response classes used by urllib 21.8. urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components 21.8.1. URL Parsing 21.8.2. Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes 21.8.3. Structured Parse Results 21.8.4. URL Quoting 21.9. urllib.error — Exception classes raised by urllib.request 21.10. urllib.robotparser — Parser for robots.txt 21.11. http — HTTP modules 21.11.1. HTTP status codes 21.12. http.client — HTTP protocol client 21.12.1. HTTPConnection Objects 21.12.2. HTTPResponse Objects 21.12.3. Examples 21.12.4. HTTPMessage Objects 21.13. ftplib — FTP protocol client 21.13.1. FTP Objects 21.13.2. FTP_TLS Objects 21.14. poplib — POP3 protocol client 21.14.1. POP3 Objects 21.14.2. POP3 Example 21.15. imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client 21.15.1. IMAP4 Objects 21.15.2. IMAP4 Example 21.16. nntplib — NNTP protocol client 21.16.1. NNTP Objects 21.16.1.1. Attributes 21.16.1.2. Methods 21.16.2. Utility functions 21.17. smtplib — SMTP protocol client 21.17.1. SMTP Objects 21.17.2. SMTP Example 21.18. smtpd — SMTP Server 21.18.1. SMTPServer Objects 21.18.2. DebuggingServer Objects 21.18.3. PureProxy Objects 21.18.4. MailmanProxy Objects 21.18.5. SMTPChannel Objects 21.19. telnetlib — Telnet client 21.19.1. Telnet Objects 21.19.2. Telnet Example 21.20. uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122 21.20.1. Example 21.21. socketserver — A framework for network servers 21.21.1. Server Creation Notes 21.21.2. Server Objects 21.21.3. Request Handler Objects 21.21.4. Examples 21.21.4.1. socketserver.TCPServer Example 21.21.4.2. socketserver.UDPServer Example 21.21.4.3. Asynchronous Mixins 21.22. http.server — HTTP servers 21.23. http.cookies — HTTP state management 21.23.1. Cookie Objects 21.23.2. Morsel Objects 21.23.3. Example 21.24. http.cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients 21.24.1. CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects 21.24.2. FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers 21.24.3. CookiePolicy Objects 21.24.4. DefaultCookiePolicy Objects 21.24.5. Cookie Objec

array_allocator 直接就是用 std::array 来做的内存管理。先分配一大块数组，然后客户需要多少内存，就直接从数组中拿去，实现较为简单先看看它的数据成员： array_type* _M_array; size_type _M_used; array_type 就是 std::array 类型，也就是 _M_array 可以看作是一个指向数组的指针。 _M_used 就是标定数组中有多少内存块是分配出去了的。 allocator 函数源码： pointer all

文章目录1. new_allocator & malloc_allocator2. 智能 Allocator2.1 智能 Allocator 概念、思路和实现本文以GNU C++为例子进行总结归纳，主要是对GNU C++当中的 Allocator 的类别和个中思想进行分别讲解和整理。同时经过之前的系列文章，可以知道 Allocator 主要用于满足容器中的 Element 进行空间的分配任务需求。也即是，当客户将元素加入容器中，容器必须分配更多内存以保存这些元素，于是容器向其所含的 Alloc

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