void 与 return 的矛盾（thinking in C++)

yumengshuyuan 2001-03-08 08:55:00
我在学习《C++编程思想》(thinking in C++)时经常发现有下段例子，
void* fetch(stash*s,int index){
if(index>=s->next||index<0)
return 0;
return &(s->storage[index*s->size]);}
问题是void 不是已规定不让代回任何值，
可为何还用return 返回函数地址？
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yumengshuyuan 2001-03-09
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我懂了，
谢了。
upyu 2001-03-08
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这里我看过，我们不知道指针*stroage所指直的类型，所以用void表示，即void这里不表示不返回值，表示不确定的指针。"if(index>=s->next||index<0)return 0;"表示索引index不再数组范围内。&(s->storage[index*s->size])是取第index*s->size得值得地址。我可能说的不清楚，书上讲的很详细。
holyfire 2001-03-08
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返回的是void型的指针，指针的内容是0或者s->storage[index*s->size]
函数的意思是可以通过内容是否为0来判断有无结果。
holyfire 2001-03-08
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返回的是void型的指针，指针的内容是0或者s->storage[index*s->size]
函数的意思是可以通过内容是否为0来判断有无结果。
xuii 2001-03-08
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return 返回的值如果是int那么放在ax 或者Eax 如果是结构那么eax放的是指向这个结构的指针!
所以ruturn语句和void实际上并不矛盾!
建议你使用汇编级的调试工具跟踪一次!就知道了!
yumengshuyuan 2001-03-08
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易水，
我如何给你加分呀？
我是说过程，
我刚来不知怎样给别人加分，
点击哪个键？
yumengshuyuan 2001-03-08
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那此处返回的是什么呢？
Areslee 2001-03-08
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该函数的返回值是一个无类型的指针！
void*表示一个无类型指针 void 才是无返回值
tinydrop 2001-03-08
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这里void *可以看成一种基本数据类型，就像(int *)、(float *)等.但c/c++中不把它们说成是基本类型.
这里顺便说一下，对于返回void的函数也不是说函数没有返回值，只是这里的返回值不能由你指定，而由系统提供。如果你是用windows可以用GetExitCodeProcess或GetExitCodeThread函数获得返回值（一般情况时，当函数正常对出返回值是0，而其他情况是非0）。
luodi 2001-03-08
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建议你去看一下标准C运行库中 malloc的输出定义！ 返回值为 void *其实表明的是你可以将它cast成任何你想要的指计类型！void 确实是无返回的意思，但void*恰恰表明任何指计类型的意思！你说的书我没看过，你应该可以从书中的上下文中猜测它想要的结果是用来case(造型)成什么。
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Table of Contents Header Files The #define Guard Header File Dependencies Inline Functions The -inl.h Files Function Parameter Ordering Names and Order of Includes Scoping Namespaces Nested Classes Nonmember, Static Member, and Global Functions Local Variables Static and Global Variables Classes Doing Work in Constructors Default Constructors Explicit Constructors Copy Constructors Structs vs. Classes Inheritance Multiple Inheritance Interfaces Operator Overloading Access Control Declaration Order Write Short Functions Google-Specific Magic Smart Pointers cpplint Other C++ Features Reference Arguments Function Overloading Default Arguments Variable-Length Arrays and alloca() Friends Exceptions Run-Time Type Information (RTTI) Casting Streams Preincrement and Predecrement Use of const Integer Types 64-bit Portability Preprocessor Macros 0 and NULL sizeof Boost C++0x Naming General Naming Rules File Names Type Names Variable Names Constant Names Function Names Namespace Names Enumerator Names Macro Names Exceptions to Naming Rules Comments Comment Style File Comments Class Comments Function Comments Variable Comments Implementation Comments Punctuation, Spelling and Grammar TODO Comments Deprecation Comments Formatting Line Length Non-ASCII Characters Spaces vs. Tabs Function Declarations and Definitions Function Calls Conditionals Loops and Switch Statements Pointer and Reference Expressions Boolean Expressions Return Values Variable and Array Initialization Preprocessor Directives Class Format Constructor Initializer Lists Namespace Formatting Horizontal Whitespace Vertical Whitespace Exceptions to the Rules Existing Non-conformant Code Windows Code Important Note Displaying Hidden Details in this Guide link ▶This style guide contains many details that are initially hidden from view. They are marked by the triangle icon, which you see here on your left. Click it now. You should see "Hooray" appear below. Hooray! Now you know you can expand points to get more details. Alternatively, there's an "expand all" at the top of this document. Background C++ is the main development language used by many of Google's open-source projects. As every C++ programmer knows, the language has many powerful features, but this power brings with it complexity, which in turn can make code more bug-prone and harder to read and maintain. The goal of this guide is to manage this complexity by describing in detail the dos and don'ts of writing C++ code. These rules exist to keep the code base manageable while still allowing coders to use C++ language features productively. Style, also known as readability, is what we call the conventions that govern our C++ code. The term Style is a bit of a misnomer, since these conventions cover far more than just source file formatting. 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Decision: If your class defines member variables and has no other constructors you must define a default constructor (one that takes no arguments). It should preferably initialize the object in such a way that its internal state is consistent and valid. The reason for this is that if you have no other constructors and do not define a default constructor, the compiler will generate one for you. This compiler generated constructor may not initialize your object sensibly. If your class inherits from an existing class but you add no new member variables, you are not required to have a default constructor. Explicit Constructors link ▶Use the C++ keyword explicit for constructors with one argument. Definition: Normally, if a constructor takes one argument, it can be used as a conversion. 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Decision: Few classes need to be copyable. Most should have neither a copy constructor nor an assignment operator. In many situations, a pointer or reference will work just as well as a copied value, with better performance. For example, you can pass function parameters by reference or pointer instead of by value, and you can store pointers rather than objects in an STL container. If your class needs to be copyable, prefer providing a copy method, such as CopyFrom() or Clone(), rather than a copy constructor, because such methods cannot be invoked implicitly. If a copy method is insufficient in your situation (e.g. for performance reasons, or because your class needs to be stored by value in an STL container), provide both a copy constructor and assignment operator. If your class does not need a copy constructor or assignment operator, you must explicitly disable them. To do so, add dummy declarations for the copy constructor and assignment operator in the private: section of your class, but do not provide any corresponding definition (so that any attempt to use them results in a link error). For convenience, a DISALLOW_COPY_AND_ASSIGN macro can be used: // A macro to disallow the copy constructor and operator= functions // This should be used in the private: declarations for a class #define DISALLOW_COPY_AND_ASSIGN(TypeName) \ TypeName(const TypeName&); \ void operator=(const TypeName&) Then, in class Foo: class Foo { public: Foo(int f); ~Foo(); private: DISALLOW_COPY_AND_ASSIGN(Foo); }; Structs vs. Classes link ▶Use a struct only for passive objects that carry data; everything else is a class. The struct and class keywords behave almost identically in C++. 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Definition: When a sub-class inherits from a base class, it includes the definitions of all the data and operations that the parent base class defines. In practice, inheritance is used in two major ways in C++: implementation inheritance, in which actual code is inherited by the child, and interface inheritance, in which only method names are inherited. Pros: Implementation inheritance reduces code size by re-using the base class code as it specializes an existing type. Because inheritance is a compile-time declaration, you and the compiler can understand the operation and detect errors. Interface inheritance can be used to programmatically enforce that a class expose a particular API. Again, the compiler can detect errors, in this case, when a class does not define a necessary method of the API. Cons: For implementation inheritance, because the code implementing a sub-class is spread between the base and the sub-class, it can be more difficult to understand an implementation. The sub-class cannot override functions that are not virtual, so the sub-class cannot change implementation. The base class may also define some data members, so that specifies physical layout of the base class. Decision: All inheritance should be public. If you want to do private inheritance, you should be including an instance of the base class as a member instead. Do not overuse implementation inheritance. Composition is often more appropriate. Try to restrict use of inheritance to the "is-a" case: Bar subclasses Foo if it can reasonably be said that Bar "is a kind of" Foo. Make your destructor virtual if necessary. If your class has virtual methods, its destructor should be virtual. Limit the use of protected to those member functions that might need to be accessed from subclasses. Note that data members should be private. When redefining an inherited virtual function, explicitly declare it virtual in the declaration of the derived class. Rationale: If virtual is omitted, the reader has to check all ancestors of the class in question to determine if the function is virtual or not. Multiple Inheritance link ▶Only very rarely is multiple implementation inheritance actually useful. We allow multiple inheritance only when at most one of the base classes has an implementation; all other base classes must be pure interface classes tagged with the Interface suffix. Definition: Multiple inheritance allows a sub-class to have more than one base class. We distinguish between base classes that are pure interfaces and those that have an implementation. Pros: Multiple implementation inheritance may let you re-use even more code than single inheritance (see Inheritance). Cons: Only very rarely is multiple implementation inheritance actually useful. When multiple implementation inheritance seems like the solution, you can usually find a different, more explicit, and cleaner solution. Decision: Multiple inheritance is allowed only when all superclasses, with the possible exception of the first one, are pure interfaces. In order to ensure that they remain pure interfaces, they must end with the Interface suffix. Note: There is an exception to this rule on Windows. Interfaces link ▶Classes that satisfy certain conditions are allowed, but not required, to end with an Interface suffix. Definition: A class is a pure interface if it meets the following requirements: It has only public pure virtual ("= 0") methods and static methods (but see below for destructor). It may not have non-static data members. It need not have any constructors defined. If a constructor is provided, it must take no arguments and it must be protected. If it is a subclass, it may only be derived from classes that satisfy these conditions and are tagged with the Interface suffix. An interface class can never be directly instantiated because of the pure virtual method(s) it declares. To make sure all implementations of the interface can be destroyed correctly, they must also declare a virtual destructor (in an exception to the first rule, this should not be pure). See Stroustrup, The C++ Programming Language, 3rd edition, section 12.4 for details. Pros: Tagging a class with the Interface suffix lets others know that they must not add implemented methods or non static data members. This is particularly important in the case of multiple inheritance. Additionally, the interface concept is already well-understood by Java programmers. Cons: The Interface suffix lengthens the class name, which can make it harder to read and understand. Also, the interface property may be considered an implementation detail that shouldn't be exposed to clients. Decision: A class may end with Interface only if it meets the above requirements. We do not require the converse, however: classes that meet the above requirements are not required to end with Interface. Operator Overloading link ▶Do not overload operators except in rare, special circumstances. Definition: A class can define that operators such as + and / operate on the class as if it were a built-in type. Pros: Can make code appear more intuitive because a class will behave in the same way as built-in types (such as int). Overloaded operators are more playful names for functions that are less-colorfully named, such as Equals() or Add(). For some template functions to work correctly, you may need to define operators. Cons: While operator overloading can make code more intuitive, it has several drawbacks: It can fool our intuition into thinking that expensive operations are cheap, built-in operations. It is much harder to find the call sites for overloaded operators. Searching for Equals() is much easier than searching for relevant invocations of ==. Some operators work on pointers too, making it easy to introduce bugs. Foo + 4 may do one thing, while &Foo + 4 does something totally different. The compiler does not complain for either of these, making this very hard to debug. Overloading also has surprising ramifications. For instance, if a class overloads unary operator&, it cannot safely be forward-declared. Decision: In general, do not overload operators. The assignment operator (operator=), in particular, is insidious and should be avoided. You can define functions like Equals() and CopyFrom() if you need them. Likewise, avoid the dangerous unary operator& at all costs, if there's any possibility the class might be forward-declared. However, there may be rare cases where you need to overload an operator to interoperate with templates or "standard" C++ classes (such as operator<<(ostream&, const T&) for logging). These are acceptable if fully justified, but you should try to avoid these whenever possible. In particular, do not overload operator== or operator< just so that your class can be used as a key in an STL container; instead, you should create equality and comparison functor types when declaring the container. Some of the STL algorithms do require you to overload operator==, and you may do so in these cases, provided you document why. See also Copy Constructors and Function Overloading. Access Control link ▶Make data members private, and provide access to them through accessor functions as needed (for technical reasons, we allow data members of a test fixture class to be protected when using Google Test). Typically a variable would be called foo_ and the accessor function foo(). You may also want a mutator function set_foo(). Exception: static const data members (typically called kFoo) need not be private. The definitions of accessors are usually inlined in the header file. See also Inheritance and Function Names. Declaration Order link ▶Use the specified order of declarations within a class: public: before private:, methods before data members (variables), etc. Your class definition should start with its public: section, followed by its protected: section and then its private: section. If any of these sections are empty, omit them. Within each section, the declarations generally should be in the following order: Typedefs and Enums Constants (static const data members) Constructors Destructor Methods, including static methods Data Members (except static const data members) Friend declarations should always be in the private section, and the DISALLOW_COPY_AND_ASSIGN macro invocation should be at the end of the private: section. It should be the last thing in the class. See Copy Constructors. Method definitions in the corresponding .cc file should be the same as the declaration order, as much as possible. Do not put large method definitions inline in the class definition. Usually, only trivial or performance-critical, and very short, methods may be defined inline. See Inline Functions for more details. Write Short Functions link ▶Prefer small and focused functions. We recognize that long functions are sometimes appropriate, so no hard limit is placed on functions length. If a function exceeds about 40 lines, think about whether it can be broken up without harming the structure of the program. Even if your long function works perfectly now, someone modifying it in a few months may add new behavior. This could result in bugs that are hard to find. Keeping your functions short and simple makes it easier for other people to read and modify your code. You could find long and complicated functions when working with some code. Do not be intimidated by modifying existing code: if working with such a function proves to be difficult, you find that errors are hard to debug, or you want to use a piece of it in several different contexts, consider breaking up the function into smaller and more manageable pieces. Google-Specific Magic There are various tricks and utilities that we use to make C++ code more robust, and various ways we use C++ that may differ from what you see elsewhere. Smart Pointers link ▶If you actually need pointer semantics, scoped_ptr is great. You should only use std::tr1::shared_ptr under very specific conditions, such as when objects need to be held by STL containers. You should never use auto_ptr. "Smart" pointers are objects that act like pointers but have added semantics. When a scoped_ptr is destroyed, for instance, it deletes the object it's pointing to. shared_ptr is the same way, but implements reference-counting so only the last pointer to an object deletes it. Generally speaking, we prefer that we design code with clear object ownership. The clearest object ownership is obtained by using an object directly as a field or local variable, without using pointers at all. On the other extreme, by their very definition, reference counted pointers are owned by nobody. The problem with this design is that it is easy to create circular references or other strange conditions that cause an object to never be deleted. It is also slow to perform atomic operations every time a value is copied or assigned. Although they are not recommended, reference counted pointers are sometimes the simplest and most elegant way to solve a problem. cpplint link ▶Use cpplint.py to detect style errors. cpplint.py is a tool that reads a source file and identifies many style errors. It is not perfect, and has both false positives and false negatives, but it is still a valuable tool. False positives can be ignored by putting // NOLINT at the end of the line. Some projects have instructions on how to run cpplint.py from their project tools. If the project you are contributing to does not, you can download cpplint.py separately. Other C++ Features Reference Arguments link ▶All parameters passed by reference must be labeled const. Definition: In C, if a function needs to modify a variable, the parameter must use a pointer, eg int foo(int *pval). In C++, the function can alternatively declare a reference parameter: int foo(int &val). Pros: Defining a parameter as reference avoids ugly code like (*pval)++. Necessary for some applications like copy constructors. Makes it clear, unlike with pointers, that NULL is not a possible value. Cons: References can be confusing, as they have value syntax but pointer semantics. Decision: Within function parameter lists all references must be const: void Foo(const string &in, string *out); In fact it is a very strong convention in Google code that input arguments are values or const references while output arguments are pointers. Input parameters may be const pointers, but we never allow non-const reference parameters. One case when you might want an input parameter to be a const pointer is if you want to emphasize that the argument is not copied, so it must exist for the lifetime of the object; it is usually best to document this in comments as well. STL adapters such as bind2nd and mem_fun do not permit reference parameters, so you must declare functions with pointer parameters in these cases, too. Function Overloading link ▶Use overloaded functions (including constructors) only if a reader looking at a call site can get a good idea of what is happening without having to first figure out exactly which overload is being called. Definition: You may write a function that takes a const string& and overload it with another that takes const char*. class MyClass { public: void Analyze(const string &text); void Analyze(const char *text, size_t textlen); }; Pros: Overloading can make code more intuitive by allowing an identically-named function to take different arguments. It may be necessary for templatized code, and it can be convenient for Visitors. Cons: If a function is overloaded by the argument types alone, a reader may have to understand C++'s complex matching rules in order to tell what's going on. Also many people are confused by the semantics of inheritance if a derived class overrides only some of the variants of a function. Decision: If you want to overload a function, consider qualifying the name with some information about the arguments, e.g., AppendString(), AppendInt() rather than just Append(). Default Arguments link ▶We do not allow default function parameters, except in a few uncommon situations explained below. Pros: Often you have a function that uses lots of default values, but occasionally you want to override the defaults. Default parameters allow an easy way to do this without having to define many functions for the rare exceptions. Cons: People often figure out how to use an API by looking at existing code that uses it. Default parameters are more difficult to maintain because copy-and-paste from previous code may not reveal all the parameters. Copy-and-pasting of code segments can cause major problems when the default arguments are not appropriate for the new code. Decision: Except as described below, we require all arguments to be explicitly specified, to force programmers to consider the API and the values they are passing for each argument rather than silently accepting defaults they may not be aware of. One specific exception is when default arguments are used to simulate variable-length argument lists. // Support up to 4 params by using a default empty AlphaNum. string StrCat(const AlphaNum &a, const AlphaNum &b = gEmptyAlphaNum, const AlphaNum &c = gEmptyAlphaNum, const AlphaNum &d = gEmptyAlphaNum); Variable-Length Arrays and alloca() link ▶We do not allow variable-length arrays or alloca(). Pros: Variable-length arrays have natural-looking syntax. Both variable-length arrays and alloca() are very efficient. Cons: Variable-length arrays and alloca are not part of Standard C++. More importantly, they allocate a data-dependent amount of stack space that can trigger difficult-to-find memory overwriting bugs: "It ran fine on my machine, but dies mysteriously in production". Decision: Use a safe allocator instead, such as scoped_ptr/scoped_array. Friends link ▶We allow use of friend classes and functions, within reason. Friends should usually be defined in the same file so that the reader does not have to look in another file to find uses of the private members of a class. A common use of friend is to have a FooBuilder class be a friend of Foo so that it can construct the inner state of Foo correctly, without exposing this state to the world. In some cases it may be useful to make a unittest class a friend of the class it tests. Friends extend, but do not break, the encapsulation boundary of a class. In some cases this is better than making a member public when you want to give only one other class access to it. However, most classes should interact with other classes solely through their public members. Exceptions link ▶We do not use C++ exceptions. Pros: Exceptions allow higher levels of an application to decide how to handle "can't happen" failures in deeply nested functions, without the obscuring and error-prone bookkeeping of error codes. Exceptions are used by most other modern languages. Using them in C++ would make it more consistent with Python, Java, and the C++ that others are familiar with. Some third-party C++ libraries use exceptions, and turning them off internally makes it harder to integrate with those libraries. Exceptions are the only way for a constructor to fail. We can simulate this with a factory function or an Init() method, but these require heap allocation or a new "invalid" state, respectively. Exceptions are really handy in testing frameworks. Cons: When you add a throw statement to an existing function, you must examine all of its transitive callers. Either they must make at least the basic exception safety guarantee, or they must never catch the exception and be happy with the program terminating as a result. For instance, if f() calls g() calls h(), and h throws an exception that f catches, g has to be careful or it may not clean up properly. More generally, exceptions make the control flow of programs difficult to evaluate by looking at code: functions may return in places you don't expect. This causes maintainability and debugging difficulties. You can minimize this cost via some rules on how and where exceptions can be used, but at the cost of more that a developer needs to know and understand. Exception safety requires both RAII and different coding practices. Lots of supporting machinery is needed to make writing correct exception-safe code easy. Further, to avoid requiring readers to understand the entire call graph, exception-safe code must isolate logic that writes to persistent state into a "commit" phase. This will have both benefits and costs (perhaps where you're forced to obfuscate code to isolate the commit). Allowing exceptions would force us to always pay those costs even when they're not worth it. Turning on exceptions adds data to each binary produced, increasing compile time (probably slightly) and possibly increasing address space pressure. The availability of exceptions may encourage developers to throw them when they are not appropriate or recover from them when it's not safe to do so. For example, invalid user input should not cause exceptions to be thrown. We would need to make the style guide even longer to document these restrictions! Decision: On their face, the benefits of using exceptions outweigh the costs, especially in new projects. However, for existing code, the introduction of exceptions has implications on all dependent code. If exceptions can be propagated beyond a new project, it also becomes problematic to integrate the new project into existing exception-free code. Because most existing C++ code at Google is not prepared to deal with exceptions, it is comparatively difficult to adopt new code that generates exceptions. Given that Google's existing code is not exception-tolerant, the costs of using exceptions are somewhat greater than the costs in a new project. The conversion process would be slow and error-prone. We don't believe that the available alternatives to exceptions, such as error codes and assertions, introduce a significant burden. Our advice against using exceptions is not predicated on philosophical or moral grounds, but practical ones. Because we'd like to use our open-source projects at Google and it's difficult to do so if those projects use exceptions, we need to advise against exceptions in Google open-source projects as well. Things would probably be different if we had to do it all over again from scratch. There is an exception to this rule (no pun intended) for Windows code. Run-Time Type Information (RTTI) link ▶We do not use Run Time Type Information (RTTI). Definition: RTTI allows a programmer to query the C++ class of an object at run time. Pros: It is useful in some unittests. For example, it is useful in tests of factory classes where the test has to verify that a newly created object has the expected dynamic type. In rare circumstances, it is useful even outside of tests. Cons: A query of type during run-time typically means a design problem. If you need to know the type of an object at runtime, that is often an indication that you should reconsider the design of your class. Decision: Do not use RTTI, except in unittests. If you find yourself in need of writing code that behaves differently based on the class of an object, consider one of the alternatives to querying the type. Virtual methods are the preferred way of executing different code paths depending on a specific subclass type. This puts the work within the object itself. If the work belongs outside the object and instead in some processing code, consider a double-dispatch solution, such as the Visitor design pattern. This allows a facility outside the object itself to determine the type of class using the built-in type system. If you think you truly cannot use those ideas, you may use RTTI. But think twice about it. :-) Then think twice again. Do not hand-implement an RTTI-like workaround. The arguments against RTTI apply just as much to workarounds like class hierarchies with type tags. Casting link ▶Use C++ casts like static_cast(). Do not use other cast formats like int y = (int)x; or int y = int(x);. Definition: C++ introduced a different cast system from C that distinguishes the types of cast operations. Pros: The problem with C casts is the ambiguity of the operation; sometimes you are doing a conversion (e.g., (int)3.5) and sometimes you are doing a cast (e.g., (int)"hello"); C++ casts avoid this. Additionally C++ casts are more visible when searching for them. Cons: The syntax is nasty. Decision: Do not use C-style casts. Instead, use these C++-style casts. Use static_cast as the equivalent of a C-style cast that does value conversion, or when you need to explicitly up-cast a pointer from a class to its superclass. Use const_cast to remove the const qualifier (see const). Use reinterpret_cast to do unsafe conversions of pointer types to and from integer and other pointer types. Use this only if you know what you are doing and you understand the aliasing issues. Do not use dynamic_cast except in test code. If you need to know type information at runtime in this way outside of a unittest, you probably have a design flaw. Streams link ▶Use streams only for logging. Definition: Streams are a replacement for printf() and scanf(). Pros: With streams, you do not need to know the type of the object you are printing. You do not have problems with format strings not matching the argument list. (Though with gcc, you do not have that problem with printf either.) Streams have automatic constructors and destructors that open and close the relevant files. Cons: Streams make it difficult to do functionality like pread(). Some formatting (particularly the common format string idiom %.*s) is difficult if not impossible to do efficiently using streams without using printf-like hacks. Streams do not support operator reordering (the %1s directive), which is helpful for internationalization. Decision: Do not use streams, except where required by a logging interface. Use printf-like routines instead. There are various pros and cons to using streams, but in this case, as in many other cases, consistency trumps the debate. Do not use streams in your code. Extended Discussion There has been debate on this issue, so this explains the reasoning in greater depth. Recall the Only One Way guiding principle: we want to make sure that whenever we do a certain type of I/O, the code looks the same in all those places. Because of this, we do not want to allow users to decide between using streams or using printf plus Read/Write/etc. Instead, we should settle on one or the other. We made an exception for logging because it is a pretty specialized application, and for historical reasons. Proponents of streams have argued that streams are the obvious choice of the two, but the issue is not actually so clear. For every advantage of streams they point out, there is an equivalent disadvantage. The biggest advantage is that you do not need to know the type of the object to be printing. This is a fair point. But, there is a downside: you can easily use the wrong type, and the compiler will not warn you. It is easy to make this kind of mistake without knowing when using streams. cout << this; // Prints the address cout << *this; // Prints the contents The compiler does not generate an error because << has been overloaded. We discourage overloading for just this reason. Some say printf formatting is ugly and hard to read, but streams are often no better. Consider the following two fragments, both with the same typo. Which is easier to discover? cerr << "Error connecting to '" hostname.first << ":" hostname.second << ": " hostname.first, foo->bar()->hostname.second, strerror(errno)); And so on and so forth for any issue you might bring up. (You could argue, "Things would be better with the right wrappers," but if it is true for one scheme, is it not also true for the other? Also, remember the goal is to make the language smaller, not add yet more machinery that someone has to learn.) Either path would yield different advantages and disadvantages, and there is not a clearly superior solution. The simplicity doctrine mandates we settle on one of them though, and the majority decision was on printf + read/write. Preincrement and Predecrement link ▶Use prefix form (++i) of the increment and decrement operators with iterators and other template objects. Definition: When a variable is incremented (++i or i++) or decremented (--i or i--) and the value of the expression is not used, one must decide whether to preincrement (decrement) or postincrement (decrement). Pros: When the return value is ignored, the "pre" form (++i) is never less efficient than the "post" form (i++), and is often more efficient. This is because post-increment (or decrement) requires a copy of i to be made, which is the value of the expression. If i is an iterator or other non-scalar type, copying i could be expensive. Since the two types of increment behave the same when the value is ignored, why not just always pre-increment? Cons: The tradition developed, in C, of using post-increment when the expression value is not used, especially in for loops. Some find post-increment easier to read, since the "subject" (i) precedes the "verb" (++), just like in English. Decision: For simple scalar (non-object) values there is no reason to prefer one form and we allow either. For iterators and other template types, use pre-increment. Use of const link ▶We strongly recommend that you use const whenever it makes sense to do so. Definition: Declared variables and parameters can be preceded by the keyword const to indicate the variables are not changed (e.g., const int foo). Class functions can have the const qualifier to indicate the function does not change the state of the class member variables (e.g., class Foo { int Bar(char c) const; };). Pros: Easier for people to understand how variables are being used. Allows the compiler to do better type checking, and, conceivably, generate better code. Helps people convince themselves of program correctness because they know the functions they call are limited in how they can modify your variables. Helps people know what functions are safe to use without locks in multi-threaded programs. Cons: const is viral: if you pass a const variable to a function, that function must have const in its prototype (or the variable will need a const_cast). This can be a particular problem when calling library functions. Decision: const variables, data members, methods and arguments add a level of compile-time type checking; it is better to detect errors as soon as possible. Therefore we strongly recommend that you use const whenever it makes sense to do so: If a function does not modify an argument passed by reference or by pointer, that argument should be const. Declare methods to be const whenever possible. Accessors should almost always be const. Other methods should be const if they do not modify any data members, do not call any non-const methods, and do not return a non-const pointer or non-const reference to a data member. Consider making data members const whenever they do not need to be modified after construction. However, do not go crazy with const. Something like const int * const * const x; is likely overkill, even if it accurately describes how const x is. Focus on what's really useful to know: in this case, const int** x is probably sufficient. The mutable keyword is allowed but is unsafe when used with threads, so thread safety should be carefully considered first. Where to put the const Some people favor the form int const *foo to const int* foo. They argue that this is more readable because it's more consistent: it keeps the rule that const always follows the object it's describing. However, this consistency argument doesn't apply in this case, because the "don't go crazy" dictum eliminates most of the uses you'd have to be consistent with. Putting the const first is arguably more readable, since it follows English in putting the "adjective" (const) before the "noun" (int). That said, while we encourage putting const first, we do not require it. But be consistent with the code around you! Integer Types link ▶Of the built-in C++ integer types, the only one used is int. If a program needs a variable of a different size, use a precise-width integer type from , such as int16_t. Definition: C++ does not specify the sizes of its integer types. Typically people assume that short is 16 bits, int is 32 bits, long is 32 bits and long long is 64 bits. Pros: Uniformity of declaration. Cons: The sizes of integral types in C++ can vary based on compiler and architecture. Decision: defines types like int16_t, uint32_t, int64_t, etc. You should always use those in preference to short, unsigned long long and the like, when you need a guarantee on the size of an integer. Of the C integer types, only int should be used. When appropriate, you are welcome to use standard types like size_t and ptrdiff_t. We use int very often, for integers we know are not going to be too big, e.g., loop counters. Use plain old int for such things. You should assume that an int is at least 32 bits, but don't assume that it has more than 32 bits. If you need a 64-bit integer type, use int64_t or uint64_t. For integers we know can be "big", use int64_t. You should not use the unsigned integer types such as uint32_t, unless the quantity you are representing is really a bit pattern rather than a number, or unless you need defined twos-complement overflow. In particular, do not use unsigned types to say a number will never be negative. Instead, use assertions for this. On Unsigned Integers Some people, including some textbook authors, recommend using unsigned types to represent numbers that are never negative. This is intended as a form of self-documentation. However, in C, the advantages of such documentation are outweighed by the real bugs it can introduce. Consider: for (unsigned int i = foo.Length()-1; i >= 0; --i) ... This code will never terminate! Sometimes gcc will notice this bug and warn you, but often it will not. Equally bad bugs can occur when comparing signed and unsigned variables. Basically, C's type-promotion scheme causes unsigned types to behave differently than one might expect. So, document that a variable is non-negative using assertions. Don't use an unsigned type. 64-bit Portability link ▶Code should be 64-bit and 32-bit friendly. Bear in mind problems of printing, comparisons, and structure alignment. printf() specifiers for some types are not cleanly portable between 32-bit and 64-bit systems. C99 defines some portable format specifiers. Unfortunately, MSVC 7.1 does not understand some of these specifiers and the standard is missing a few, so we have to define our own ugly versions in some cases (in the style of the standard include file inttypes.h): // printf macros for size_t, in the style of inttypes.h #ifdef _LP64 #define __PRIS_PREFIX "z" #else #define __PRIS_PREFIX #endif // Use these macros after a % in a printf format string // to get correct 32/64 bit behavior, like this: // size_t size = records.size(); // printf("%"PRIuS"\n", size); #define PRIdS __PRIS_PREFIX "d" #define PRIxS __PRIS_PREFIX "x" #define PRIuS __PRIS_PREFIX "u" #define PRIXS __PRIS_PREFIX "X" #define PRIoS __PRIS_PREFIX "o" Type DO NOT use DO use Notes void * (or any pointer) %lx %p int64_t %qd, %lld %"PRId64" uint64_t %qu, %llu, %llx %"PRIu64", %"PRIx64" size_t %u %"PRIuS", %"PRIxS" C99 specifies %zu ptrdiff_t %d %"PRIdS" C99 specifies %zd Note that the PRI* macros expand to independent strings which are concatenated by the compiler. Hence if you are using a non-constant format string, you need to insert the value of the macro into the format, rather than the name. It is still possible, as usual, to include length specifiers, etc., after the % when using the PRI* macros. So, e.g. printf("x = %30"PRIuS"\n", x) would expand on 32-bit Linux to printf("x = %30" "u" "\n", x), which the compiler will treat as printf("x = %30u\n", x). Remember that sizeof(void *) != sizeof(int). Use intptr_t if you want a pointer-sized integer. You may need to be careful with structure alignments, particularly for structures being stored on disk. Any class/structure with a int64_t/uint64_t member will by default end up being 8-byte aligned on a 64-bit system. If you have such structures being shared on disk between 32-bit and 64-bit code, you will need to ensure that they are packed the same on both architectures. Most compilers offer a way to alter structure alignment. For gcc, you can use __attribute__((packed)). MSVC offers #pragma pack() and __declspec(align()). Use the LL or ULL suffixes a
C++面向对象编程（OOP）学习资料.md
这个示例展示了一个名为 Person 的类，具有 name_ 和 age_ 成员变量，以及 Introduce() 成员函数。在 main() 函数中，我们创建了一个 Person 对象，并调用其 Introduce() 成员函数进行自我介绍。 您可以根据这个示例深入学习如何定义类、使用构造函数初始化成员变量、定义成员函数以及创建对象并调用成员函数等基本概念和操作。 希望这个资料对您有帮助！如果您对其他方面有更多问题，请随时提问。
C++面试题以及答案
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Using LUA with Visual C++ (Introduction)
What is LUA? LUA is a scripting language, its power lies in the fact that it can be embedded in your C++ programs. Scripts give you the possibility to change the behaviour of your C++ programs without any need to recompile your program. A real world example would be game programming: you only have to change the script(s) and you can create a whole new game using the same engine. LUA is fully customizable, you can create your own script functions and expose them to a 3th party. Or you can create scripts, encrypt them and then decrypt them at run-time so that only a number of limited people can script for your program. Allowing the end-user to modify your program, gives your program a point ahead to the competition. Using LUA in your program does require some thinking ahead... You have to choose what kind of functions you allow in the scripts. For example: a function savegame would be logic and usefull and so could be a function deletesavegame but making a function such as deletefile public can be dangerous. The LUA version discussed is 5.0.2. Don't forget that this document is only a quick introduction and that it is not a complete tutorial about LUA. How to embed LAU into C++? Another way to formulate this question : "How can I use LUA in my Visual C++ Project?". The answer is actually pretty easy, you download it from lua.org and you follow the instructions below. Know that there are several ways to add LUA to your project and I only explain one of them. NOTE: I'm assuming that you know the basics about how to use your compiler, the instructions outlined below are ment for Microsoft Visual C++ 6. Installation : dowload LUA here (links to official website) Extract the files to a folder, for example "c:\Program Files\LUA SDK" Configuration : In your Microsoft Visual C++ IDE Go to Tools->Options. Select Directories and add the LUA include-directory. Add LUA to your project (non-MFC) : Create a new folder in your project's workspace and call it LUA. Add the files. Select and insert all the files in the LUA src-directory (from lapi.c to lzio.h). Add LUA to your project (MFC) : Create a new folder in your project's workspace and call it LUA. Add the files. Select and insert all the files in the LUA src-directory (from lapi.c to lzio.h). MFC uses precompiled headers, LUA doesn't, so let's disable them. Select the LUA folder in your workspace and press the right mouse button, then select Settings from the menu. Select "All Configurations". Then open the LUA folder and select all the .c-files (make sure your selection doesn't include a folder or a .h file!). On the right side a C++-tab will appear. In that C++-tab select the "Precompiled Headers"-catagory. And select "Not using precompiled headers". Press the OK-button to finish. About ANSI C and C++ LUA is pure ANSI C code, this means that if you build the code with a C++ compiler it will complain with "error LNK2001: unresolved external symbol" messages. Two easy ways exist to resolve this problem without modifying the original source files : Tell the compiler that the function definitions are C style by enclosing the include directive with the extern keyword : extern "C" { #include } You can also define LUA_API before including lua.h : #define LUA_API extern "C" #include I recommend that you use the first method. The LUA State In order to use LUA you have to initialize it and when you're done with it you have to deinitialize LUA. This is done by respectivily opening and closing an LUA state. // Open the LUA state lua_State *L = lua_open(); // Use LUA... ; // Close the LUA state lua_close(L); You can have multiple LUA states in your program which are all indepedent of each other. The LUA Stack LUA is stack-based. The communication between the script and the C/C++ application happens between a stack maintained by LUA. Note that each LUA state has its own stack. A clean programmer will ensure that the stack is zero at the end of his program. You can verify this by calling the lua_gettop function, the result must be zero, it's a good candidate for the _ASSERT macro (defined in crtdbg.h). // Open the LUA state lua_State *L = lua_open(); // Use LUA... ; // Verify the stack // (don't forget to include crtdbg.h) _ASSERT(lua_gettop(L) == 0); // Close the LUA state lua_close(L); LUA defines lua_pushXXX (where XXX can be "string", "number", "boolean", ...) but it doesn't define the lua_popXXX versions. Here's an example how to define them by yourself : inline LUA_API lua_Number lua_popnumber(lua_State *L) { register lua_Number tmp = lua_tonumber(L, lua_gettop(L)); lua_pop(L, 1); return tmp; } inline LUA_API const char *lua_popstring(lua_State *L) { register const char *tmp = lua_tostring(L, lua_gettop(L)); lua_pop(L, 1); return tmp; } When popping the values they are converted automaticly when possible : // Push -1 as a number lua_pushnumber(L, -1); // And pop it again as a string (s --> "-1") const char *s = lua_popstring(L); If the conversion is impossible then NULL/0 will be returned. For example we can't convert a boolean to a string : // Push 1 (true) lua_pushboolean(L, 1); // And pop it again as a string (s --> NULL) const char *s = lua_popstring(L); There are many other stack manipulation functions and there are also functions to verify the value type on the stack. I suggest that you check out the LUA manual that comes with the distribution. Executing an LUA script Executing an LUA script isn't that straight-forward at first but at the end it turns out the be very simple. I'm explaining you the full implementation of how to execute a script by creating your own "reader". LUA comes with its own library that contains ready-to-use functions but I prefer you to explain the complete version so you can understand better how LUA works. In order to execute LUA scripts you have to load them first and call them afterwarts, this is done by respectivily calling the lua_load and the lua_call or lua_pcall function. The lua_load function takes four parameters : LUA_API int lua_load (lua_State *L, lua_Chunkreader reader, void *data, const char *chunkname); The first one is the pointer to the LUA state, the second one is a pointer to a user-defined reader function, the third pointer is a user-defined value that the reader function will receive, and the fourth one is a name we decide ourselves for debugging purposes. As you can see from this call, there is no argument accepting a script. We have to define this ourselves using the data argument. Let's take a look at this structure (taken from the LUA library), we will define : typedef struct luaMemFile { const char *text; size_t size; } luaMemFile; The text variable will be our script line(s) and the size variable will tell us if we have finished reading or not (see later). A value of zero will mean : we are no longer reading. We now define a simple callback function : const char *readMemFile(lua_State *, void *ud, size_t *size) { // Convert the ud pointer (UserData) to a pointer of our structure luaMemFile *luaMF = (luaMemFile *) ud; // Are we done? if(luaMF->size == 0) return NULL; // Read everything at once // And set size to zero to tell the next call we're done *size = luaMF->size; luaMF->size = 0; // Return a pointer to the readed text return luaMF->text; } Once the script has been loaded, a simple call to lua_pcall will suffice. I prefer lua_pcall above lua_call because the later one will terminate the program if there was an error. The lua_call takes three parameters and the lua_pcall function takes four parameters : LUA_API void lua_call (lua_State *L, int nargs, int nresults); LUA_API int lua_pcall (lua_State *L, int nargs, int nresults, int errfunc); The first parameter is the pointer to the LUA state, the second parameter is the number of arguments on the stack that the command takes (and when executing a loaded script this can remain 0). The third parameter is the number of result parameters the command will return on the stack. If nresult equals LUA_MULTRET then the number of parameters that will be pushed on the stack is controlled by the called function! Yes indeed, an LUA function can return more than one parameter, for example : return "i", "return", 5, "strings", "and", 2, "numbers" The fourth parameter (errfunc) is only valid for the lua_pcall function and is used for controlling the error-handling. Please read the LUA manual for more information about this parameter. A note about the nresults argument: if we take the example return statement above, then we see that 7 values would be returned. If we execute this script with nresult==LUA_MULTRET then 7 values would be returned, if we would call the function with nresult==3 then only the 3 first values would be returned ("i", "return" and 5). This is the test script we will execute : const char *testscript = { "function double(n)\n" " return n * 2\n" "end\n" "\n" "return double(1)\n" }; function double(n) return n * 2 end return double(1) A quick but nasty way of executing would be this : // luaMemFile luaMF; // Load the command and try to execute it... luaMF.text = testscript; luaMF.size = strlen(luaMF.text); lua_load(L, readMemFile, &luaMF, "test script"); lua_pcall(L, 0, 0, 0); You may ask why is this a bad method? Well, there is no error checking, if the script contains error or an execution error occur than the stack will be messed-up, LUA functions push their error values on the stack so you need to check the result of both lua_load and lua_pcall and act accordingly! This is the implementation that I prefer : // luaMemFile luaMF; // Load the command and try to execute it... luaMF.text = testscript; luaMF.size = strlen(luaMF.text); if(lua_load(L, readMemFile, &luaMF, "test script") == 0) { // Execute the loaded command... // The function takes 0 parameters and will return 1 result if(lua_pcall(L, 0, 1, 0) == 0) { // There was no error // Let's get the result from the stack lua_Number result = lua_tonumber(L, lua_gettop(L)); } // Clean-up the stack lua_pop(L, 1); } else { // There was a lua_load error... // Pop the error value from the stack lua_pop(L, 1); } Calling C functions from LUA In order to make this topic more accessible, a whole new page has been assigned to it, please follow this link : Calling C functions from LUA or How to expose C function to LUA scripts. 来源： http://www.codegurus.be/codegurus/Programming/luaintroduction_en.htm
二十三种设计模式【PDF版】
主要是介绍各种格式流行的软件设计模式，对于程序员的进一步提升起推进作用，有时间可以随便翻翻~~ 23种设计模式汇集 如果你还不了解设计模式是什么的话？ 那就先看设计模式引言 ! 学习 GoF 设计模式的重要性 建筑和软件中模式之异同 A. 创建模式 设计模式之 Singleton(单态/单件) 阎宏博士讲解：单例（Singleton）模式 保证一个类只有一个实例,并提供一个访问它的全局访问点 设计模式之 Factory(工厂方法和抽象工厂) 使用工厂模式就象使用 new 一样频繁. 设计模式之 Builder 汽车由车轮 方向盘 发动机很多部件组成，同时，将这些部件组装成汽车也是一件复杂的工作，Builder 模式就是将这两 种情况分开进行。 设计模式之 Prototype(原型) 用原型实例指定创建对象的种类，并且通过拷贝这些原型创建新的对象。 B. 结构模式 设计模式之 Adapter(适配器) 使用类再生的两个方式:组合(new)和继承(extends),这个已经在 thinking in java中提到过. 设计模式之 Proxy(代理) 以 Jive 为例,剖析代理模式在用户级别授权机制上的应用 设计模式之 Facade(门面？) 可扩展的使用 JDBC针对不同的数据库编程,Facade提供了一种灵活的实现. 设计模式之 Composite(组合) 就是将类用树形结构组合成一个单位.你向别人介绍你是某单位，你是单位中的一个元素，别人和你做买卖，相当于 和单位做买卖。文章中还对 Jive再进行了剖析。 设计模式之 Decorator(装饰器) Decorator 是个油漆工,给你的东东的外表刷上美丽的颜色. 设计模式之 Bridge(桥连) 将牛郎织女分开(本应在一起,分开他们,形成两个接口),在他们之间搭建一个桥(动态的结合) 设计模式之 Flyweight(共享元) 提供 Java运行性能,降低小而大量重复的类的开销. C. 行为模式 设计模式之 Command(命令) 什么是将行为封装,Command 是最好的说明. 设计模式之 Observer(观察者) 介绍如何使用 Java API 提供的现成 Observer 设计模式之 Iterator(迭代器) 这个模式已经被整合入Java的Collection.在大多数场合下无需自己制造一个Iterator,只要将对象装入Collection中， 直接使用 Iterator 进行对象遍历。 设计模式之 Template(模板方法) 实际上向你介绍了为什么要使用 Java 抽象类,该模式原理简单,使用很普遍. 设计模式之 Strategy(策略) 不同算法各自封装,用户端可随意挑选需要的算法. 设计模式之 Chain of Responsibility(责任链) 各司其职的类串成一串,好象击鼓传花,当然如果自己能完成,就不要推委给下一个. 设计模式之 Mediator(中介) Mediator 很象十字路口的红绿灯,每个车辆只需和红绿灯交互就可以. 设计模式之 State(状态) 状态是编程中经常碰到的实例,将状态对象化,设立状态变换器,便可在状态中轻松切换. 设计模式之 Memento(注释状态？) 很简单一个模式,就是在内存中保留原来数据的拷贝. 设计模式之 Interpreter(解释器) 主要用来对语言的分析,应用机会不多. 设计模式之 Visitor(访问者) 访问者在进行访问时,完成一系列实质性操作,而且还可以扩展. 设计模式引言 设计面向对象软件比较困难，而设计可复用的面向对象软件就更加困难。你必须找到相关的对象，以适当的粒度将它们归 类，再定义类的接口和继承层次，建立对象之间的基本关系。你的设计应该对手头的问题有针对性，同时对将来的问题和需求 也要有足够的通用性。 你也希望避免重复设计或尽可能少做重复设计。有经验的面向对象设计者会告诉你，要一下子就得到复用性和灵活性好的设计， 即使不是不可能的至少也是非常困难的。一个设计在最终完成之前常要被复用好几次，而且每一次都有所修改。 有经验的面向对象设计者的确能做出良好的设计，而新手则面对众多选择无从下手，总是求助于以前使用过的非面向对象 技术。新手需要花费较长时间领会良好的面向对象设计是怎么回事。有经验的设计者显然知道一些新手所不知道的东西，这又 是什么呢？ 内行的设计者知道：不是解决任何问题都要从头做起。他们更愿意复用以前使用过的解决方案。当找到一个好的解决方案，他 们会一遍又一遍地使用。这些经验是他们成为内行的部分原因。因此，你会在许多面向对象系统中看到类和相互通信的对象（ c o m m u n i c a t i n go b j e c t）的重复模式。这些模式解决特定的设计问题，使面向对象设计更灵活、优雅，最终复用性更 好。它们帮助设计者将新的设计建立在以往工作的基础上，复用以往成功的设计方案。 一个熟悉这些模式的设计者不需要再去发现它们，而能够立即将它们应用于设计问题中。以下类比可以帮助说明这一点。 小说家和剧本作家很少从头开始设计剧情。他们总是沿袭一些业已存在的模式，像“悲剧性英雄”模式(《麦克白》、《哈姆雷特》 等)或“浪漫小说”模式(存在着无数浪漫小说)。同样地，面向对象设计员也沿袭一些模式，像“用对象表示状态”和“修饰对象以便 于你能容易地添加/删除属性”等。一旦懂得了模式，许多设计决策自然而然就产生了。 我们都知道设计经验的重要价值。你曾经多少次有过这种感觉—你已经解决过了一个问题但就是不能确切知道是在什么地 方或怎么解决的？如果你能记起以前问题的细节和怎么解决它的，你就可以复用以前的经验而不需要重新发现它。然而，我们 并没有很好记录下可供他人使用的软件设计经验。 学习 GoF设计模式的重要性 著名的 EJB 领域顶尖的专家 Richard Monson-Haefel 在其个人网站:www.EJBNow.com 中极力推荐的 GoF 的《设计模式》,原文 如下: Design Patterns Most developers claim to experience an epiphany reading this book. If you've never read the Design Patterns book then you have suffered a very serious gap in your programming education that should be remedied immediately. 翻译: 很多程序员在读完这本书,宣布自己相当于经历了一次"主显节"(纪念那稣降生和受洗的双重节日),如果你从来没有读 过这本书,你会在你的程序教育生涯里存在一个严重裂沟,所以你应该立即挽救弥补! 可以这么说：GoF 设计模式是程序员真正掌握面向对象核心思想的必修课。虽然你可能已经通过了 SUN 的很多令人炫目的 技术认证，但是如果你没有学习掌握 GoF 设计模式，只能说明你还是一个技工。 在浏览《Thingking in Java》(第一版)时，你是不是觉得好象这还是一本 Java 基础语言书籍？但又不纯粹是，因为这本书的作 者将面向对象的思想巧妙的融合在 Java 的具体技术上，潜移默化的让你感觉到了一种新的语言和新的思想方式的诞生。 但是读完这本书，你对书中这些蕴含的思想也许需要一种更明晰更系统更透彻的了解和掌握，那么你就需要研读 GoF 的《设 计模式》了。 《Thingking in Java》(第一版中文)是这样描述设计模式的：他在由 Gamma, Helm 和 Johnson Vlissides 简称 Gang of Four(四人 帮),缩写 GoF 编著的《Design Patterns》一书中被定义成一个“里程碑”。事实上，那本书现在已成为几乎所有 OOP(面向对象程 序设计)程序员都必备的参考书。(在国外是如此)。 GoF 的《设计模式》是所有面向对象语言(C++ Java C#)的基础，只不过不同的语言将之实现得更方便地使用。 GOF 的设计模式是一座"桥" 就 Java 语言体系来说，GOF 的设计模式是 Java 基础知识和 J2EE 框架知识之间一座隐性的"桥"。 会 Java 的人越来越多，但是一直徘徊在语言层次的程序员不在少数，真正掌握 Java 中接口或抽象类的应用不是很多，大家 经常以那些技术只适合大型项目为由，避开或忽略它们，实际中，Java 的接口或抽象类是真正体现 Java 思想的核心所在，这些 你都将在 GoF 的设计模式里领略到它们变幻无穷的魔力。 GoF 的设计模式表面上好象也是一种具体的"技术"，而且新的设计模式不断在出现，设计模式自有其自己的发展轨道，而这 些好象和 J2EE .Net 等技术也无关！ 实际上，GoF 的设计模式并不是一种具体"技术",它讲述的是思想，它不仅仅展示了接口或抽象类在实际案例中的灵活应用 和智慧，让你能够真正掌握接口或抽象类的应用，从而在原来的 Java 语言基础上跃进一步，更重要的是，GoF 的设计模式反复 向你强调一个宗旨：要让你的程序尽可能的可重用。 这其实在向一个极限挑战：软件需求变幻无穷，计划没有变化快，但是我们还是要寻找出不变的东西，并将它和变化的东 西分离开来，这需要非常的智慧和经验。 而 GoF 的设计模式是在这方面开始探索的一块里程碑。 J2EE 等属于一种框架软件，什么是框架软件？它不同于我们以前接触的 Java API 等，那些属于 Toolkist(工具箱)，它不再被动 的被使用，被调用，而是深刻的介入到一个领域中去，J2EE 等框架软件设计的目的是将一个领域中不变的东西先定义好，比如 整体结构和一些主要职责(如数据库操作 事务跟踪 安全等)，剩余的就是变化的东西，针对这个领域中具体应用产生的具体不同 的变化需求，而这些变化东西就是 J2EE 程序员所要做的。 由此可见，设计模式和 J2EE 在思想和动机上是一脉相承，只不过 1.设计模式更抽象，J2EE 是具体的产品代码，我们可以接触到，而设计模式在对每个应用时才会产生具体代码。 2.设计模式是比 J2EE 等框架软件更小的体系结构，J2EE 中许多具体程序都是应用设计模式来完成的，当你深入到 J2EE 的内 部代码研究时，这点尤其明显，因此，如果你不具备设计模式的基础知识(GoF 的设计模式)，你很难快速的理解 J2EE。不能理解 J2EE,如何能灵活应用？ 3.J2EE 只是适合企业计算应用的框架软件，但是 GoF 的设计模式几乎可以用于任何应用！因此 GoF 的设计模式应该是 J2EE 的重要理论基础之一。 所以说，GoF 的设计模式是 Java 基础知识和 J2EE 框架知识之间一座隐性的"桥"。为什么说隐性的？ GOF 的设计模式是一座隐性的"桥" 因为很多人没有注意到这点，学完 Java 基础语言就直接去学 J2EE,有的甚至鸭子赶架，直接使用起 Weblogic 等具体 J2EE 软 件，一段时间下来，发现不过如此，挺简单好用，但是你真正理解 J2EE 了吗？你在具体案例中的应用是否也是在延伸 J2EE 的思 想？ 如果你不能很好的延伸 J2EE 的思想，那你岂非是大炮轰蚊子，认识到 J2EE 不是适合所有场合的人至少是明智的，但我们更 需要将 J2EE 用对地方，那么只有理解 J2EE 此类框架软件的精髓，那么你才能真正灵活应用 Java 解决你的问题，甚至构架出你自 己企业的框架来。(我们不能总是使用别人设定好的框架，为什么不能有我们自己的框架？) 因此，首先你必须掌握 GoF 的设计模式。虽然它是隐性，但不是可以越过的。 关于本站“设计模式” Java 提供了丰富的 API，同时又有强大的数据库系统作底层支持，那么我们的编程似乎变成了类似积木的简单"拼凑"和调用， 甚至有人提倡"蓝领程序员",这些都是对现代编程技术的不了解所至. 在真正可复用的面向对象编程中,GoF 的《设计模式》为我们提供了一套可复用的面向对象技术,再配合 Refactoring(重构方法), 所以很少存在简单重复的工作,加上Java 代码的精炼性和面向对象纯洁性(设计模式是 java 的灵魂),编程工作将变成一个让你时刻 体验创造快感的激动人心的过程. 为能和大家能共同探讨"设计模式",我将自己在学习中的心得写下来,只是想帮助更多人更容易理解 GoF 的《设计模式》。由 于原著都是以C++为例, 以Java为例的设计模式基本又都以图形应用为例,而我们更关心Java在中间件等服务器方面的应用,因此, 本站所有实例都是非图形应用,并且顺带剖析 Jive论坛系统.同时为降低理解难度，尽量避免使用 UML 图. 如果你有一定的面向对象编程经验,你会发现其中某些设计模式你已经无意识的使用过了;如果你是一个新手,那么从开始就 培养自己良好的编程习惯(让你的的程序使用通用的模式,便于他人理解;让你自己减少重复性的编程工作),这无疑是成为一个优秀 程序员的必备条件. 整个设计模式贯穿一个原理:面对接口编程，而不是面对实现.目标原则是:降低耦合,增强灵活性. 建筑和软件中模式之异同 CSDN 的透明特别推崇《建筑的永恒之道》,认为从中探寻到软件的永恒之道,并就"设计模式"写了专门文章《探寻软件的永恒 之道 》,其中很多观点我看了很受启发,以前我也将"设计模式" 看成一个简单的解决方案,没有从一种高度来看待"设计模式"在软 件中地位,下面是我自己的一些想法: 建筑和软件某些地方是可以来比喻的 特别是中国传统建筑,那是很讲模式的,这些都是传统文化使然,比如京剧 一招一式都有套路;中国画,也有套路,树应该怎么画 法?有几种画法?艺术大家通常是创造出自己的套路,比如明末清初,水墨画法开始成熟,这时画树就不用勾勒这个模式了,而是一笔 下去,浓淡几个叶子,待毛笔的水墨要干枯时,画一下树干,这样,一个活生写意的树就画出来. 我上面这些描述其实都是一种模式,创建模式的人是大师,但是拘泥于模式的人永远是工匠. 再回到传统建筑中,中国的传统建筑是过分注重模式了,所以建筑风格发展不大,基本分南北两派,大家有个感觉,旅游时,到南 方,你发现古代名居建筑都差不多;北方由于受满人等少数民族的影响,在建筑色彩上有些与南方迥异,但是很多细节地方都差不多. 这些都是模式的体现. 由于建筑受材料和功用以及费用的影响,所用模式种类不多,这点是和软件很大的不同. 正因为这点不同,导致建筑的管理模式和软件的管理模式就有很多不同, 有些人认识不到这点,就产生了可以大量使用"软件 蓝领"的想法,因为他羡慕建筑中"民工"的低成本. 要知道软件还有一个与建筑截然相反的责任和用途,那就是:现代社会中,计划感不上变化,竞争激烈,所有一切变幻莫测,要应 付所有这些变化,首推信息技术中的软件,只有软件能够帮助人类去应付各种变化.而这点正好与建筑想反,建筑是不能帮助人类去 应付变化的,(它自己反而要求稳固,老老实实帮助人遮风避雨,总不能叫人类在露天或树叶下打开电脑编软件吧). 软件要帮助人类去应付变化,这是软件的首要责任,所以,软件中模式产生的目的就和建筑不一样了,建筑中的模式产生可以因 为很多原因:建筑大师的创意;材料的革新等;建筑中这些模式一旦产生,容易发生另外一个缺点,就是有时会阻碍建筑本身的发展, 因为很多人会不思创造,反复使用老的模式进行设计,阻碍建筑的发展. 但是在软件中,这点正好相反,软件模式的产生是因为变化的东西太多,为减轻人类的负担,将一些不变的东西先用模式固化,这 样让人类可以更加集中精力对付变化的东西,所以在软件中大量反复使用模式(我个人认为这样的软件就叫框架软件了,比如J2EE), 不但没阻碍软件的发展,反而是推动了软件的发展.因为其他使用这套软件的人就可以将更多精力集中在对付那些无法用模式的 应用上来. 可以关于建筑和软件中的模式作用可以总结如下: 在软件中,模式是帮助人类向"变化"战斗,但是在软件中还需要和'变化'直接面对面战斗的武器:人的思维,特别是创造 分析思 维等等，这些是软件真正的灵魂，这种思维可以说只要有实践需求(如有新项目)就要求发生，发生频度高，人类的创造或分析思 维决定了软件的质量和特点。 而在建筑中,模式可以构成建筑全部知识，当有新的需求(如有新项目)，一般使用旧的模式都可以完成，因此对人类的创造以 及分析思维不是每个项目都必须的，也不是非常重要的，对创造性的思维的需求只是属于锦上添花（除非人类以后离开地球居 住了〕。 设计模式之 Singleton(单态) 模式实战书籍《Java实用系统开发指南》 单态定义: Singleton 模式主要作用是保证在 Java 应用程序中，一个类 Class 只有一个实例存在。 在很多操作中，比如建立目录 数据库连接都需要这样的单线程操作。 还有, singleton 能够被状态化; 这样，多个单态类在一起就可以作为一个状态仓库一样向外提供服务，比如，你要论坛中的 帖子计数器，每次浏览一次需要计数，单态类能否保持住这个计数，并且能 synchronize 的安全自动加 1，如果你要把这个数字 永久保存到数据库，你可以在不修改单态接口的情况下方便的做到。 另外方面，Singleton 也能够被无状态化。提供工具性质的功能， Singleton 模式就为我们提供了这样实现的可能。使用 Singleton 的好处还在于可以节省内存，因为它限制了实例的个数，有 利于 Java 垃圾回收（garbage collection）。 我们常常看到工厂模式中类装入器(class loader)中也用 Singleton 模式实现的,因为被装入的类实际也属于资源。 如何使用? 一般 Singleton 模式通常有几种形式: public class Singleton { private Singleton(){} //在自己内部定义自己一个实例，是不是很奇怪？ //注意这是 private 只供内部调用 private static Singleton instance = new Singleton(); //这里提供了一个供外部访问本 class 的静态方法，可以直接访问 public static Singleton getInstance() { return instance; } } 第二种形式: public class Singleton { private static Singleton instance = null; public static synchronized Singleton getInstance() { //这个方法比上面有所改进，不用每次都进行生成对象，只是第一次 //使用时生成实例，提高了效率！ if (instance==null) instance＝new Singleton(); return instance; } } 使用 Singleton.getInstance()可以访问单态类。 上面第二中形式是 lazy initialization，也就是说第一次调用时初始 Singleton，以后就不用再生成了。 注意到 lazy initialization 形式中的 synchronized，这个 synchronized 很重要，如果没有 synchronized，那么使用 getInstance() 是有可能得到多个 Singleton 实例。关于 lazy initialization 的 Singleton 有很多涉及 double-checked locking (DCL)的讨论，有兴趣者 进一步研究。 一般认为第一种形式要更加安全些。 使用 Singleton 注意事项： 有时在某些情况下，使用 Singleton 并不能达到 Singleton 的目的，如有多个 Singleton 对象同时被不同的类装入器装载；在 EJB 这样的分布式系统中使用也要注意这种情况，因为 EJB 是跨服务器，跨 JVM 的。 我们以 SUN 公司的宠物店源码(Pet Store 1.3.1)的 ServiceLocator 为例稍微分析一下： 在 Pet Store中 ServiceLocator 有两种，一个是 EJB 目录下；一个是 WEB 目录下，我们检查这两个 ServiceLocator 会发现内容 差不多，都是提供 EJB 的查询定位服务，可是为什么要分开呢？仔细研究对这两种 ServiceLocator 才发现区别：在 WEB 中的 ServiceLocator 的采取 Singleton 模式，ServiceLocator 属于资源定位，理所当然应该使用 Singleton 模式。但是在 EJB 中，Singleton 模式已经失去作用，所以 ServiceLocator 才分成两种，一种面向 WEB 服务的，一种是面向 EJB 服务的。 Singleton 模式看起来简单，使用方法也很方便，但是真正用好，是非常不容易，需要对 Java 的类 线程 内存等概念有相当 的了解。 总之：如果你的应用基于容器，那么 Singleton 模式少用或者不用，可以使用相关替代技术。 进一步深入可参考： Double-checked locking and the Singleton pattern When is a singleton not a singleton? 设计模式如何在具体项目中应用见《Java 实用系统开发指南》。 设计模式之 Factory 工厂模式定义:提供创建对象的接口. 为何使用? 工厂模式是我们最常用的模式了,著名的Jive论坛 ,就大量使用了工厂模式，工厂模式在Java程序系统可以说是随处可见。 为什么工厂模式是如此常用？因为工厂模式就相当于创建实例对象的 new，我们经常要根据类 Class 生成实例对象，如 A a=new A() 工厂模式也是用来创建实例对象的，所以以后 new时就要多个心眼，是否可以考虑实用工厂模式，虽然这样做， 可能多做一些工作，但会给你系统带来更大的可扩展性和尽量少的修改量。 我们以类 Sample为例， 如果我们要创建 Sample的实例对象: Sample sample=new Sample(); 可是，实际情况是，通常我们都要在创建 sample实例时做点初始化的工作,比如赋值 查询数据库等。 首先，我们想到的是，可以使用 Sample的构造函数，这样生成实例就写成: Sample sample=new Sample(参数); 但是，如果创建 sample 实例时所做的初始化工作不是象赋值这样简单的事，可能是很长一段代码，如果也写入构造函数 中，那你的代码很难看了（就需要 Refactor 重整）。 为什么说代码很难看，初学者可能没有这种感觉，我们分析如下，初始化工作如果是很长一段代码，说明要做的工作很多， 将很多工作装入一个方法中，相当于将很多鸡蛋放在一个篮子里，是很危险的，这也是有背于 Java 面向对象的原则，面向对象 的封装(Encapsulation)和分派(Delegation)告诉我们，尽量将长的代码分派“切割”成每段，将每段再“封装”起来(减少段和段 之间偶合联系性)，这样，就会将风险分散，以后如果需要修改，只要更改每段，不会再发生牵一动百的事情。 在本例中，首先，我们需要将创建实例的工作与使用实例的工作分开, 也就是说，让创建实例所需要的大量初始化工作从 Sample的构造函数中分离出去。 这时我们就需要 Factory 工厂模式来生成对象了，不能再用上面简单 new Sample(参数)。还有,如果 Sample 有个继承 如 MySample, 按照面向接口编程,我们需要将 Sample 抽象成一个接口.现在 Sample 是接口,有两个子类 MySample 和 HisSample .我们要实例化他们时,如下: Sample mysample=new MySample(); Sample hissample=new HisSample(); 随着项目的深入,Sample可能还会"生出很多儿子出来", 那么我们要对这些儿子一个个实例化,更糟糕的是,可能还要对以 前的代码进行修改:加入后来生出儿子的实例.这在传统程序中是无法避免的. 但如果你一开始就有意识使用了工厂模式,这些麻烦就没有了. 工厂方法 你会建立一个专门生产 Sample实例的工厂: public class Factory{ public static Sample creator(int which){ //getClass 产生 Sample 一般可使用动态类装载装入类。 if (which==1) return new SampleA(); else if (which==2) return new SampleB(); } } 那么在你的程序中,如果要实例化 Sample 时.就使用 Sample sampleA=Factory.creator(1); 这样,在整个就不涉及到 Sample 的具体子类,达到封装效果,也就减少错误修改的机会,这个原理可以用很通俗的话来比喻: 就是具体事情做得越多,越容易范错误.这每个做过具体工作的人都深有体会,相反,官做得越高,说出的话越抽象越笼统,范错误可 能性就越少.好象我们从编程序中也能悟出人生道理?呵呵. 使用工厂方法 要注意几个角色，首先你要定义产品接口，如上面的 Sample,产品接口下有 Sample接口的实现类,如 SampleA,其次要有一个 factory 类，用来生成产品 Sample，如下图，最右边是生产的对象 Sample： 进一步稍微复杂一点，就是在工厂类上进行拓展，工厂类也有继承它的实现类 concreteFactory 了。 抽象工厂 工厂模式中有: 工厂方法(Factory Method) 抽象工厂(Abstract Factory). 这两个模式区别在于需要创建对象的复杂程度上。如果我们创建对象的方法变得复杂了,如上面工厂方法中是创建一个对象 Sample,如果我们还有新的产品接口 Sample2. 这里假设：Sample有两个 concrete 类 SampleA 和 SamleB，而 Sample2 也有两个 concrete类 Sample2A 和 SampleB2 那么，我们就将上例中 Factory 变成抽象类,将共同部分封装在抽象类中,不同部分使用子类实现，下面就是将上例中的 Factory 拓展成抽象工厂: public abstract class Factory{ public abstract Sample creator(); public abstract Sample2 creator(String name); } public class SimpleFactory extends Factory{ public Sample creator(){ ......... return new SampleA } public Sample2 creator(String name){ ......... return new Sample2A } } public class BombFactory extends Factory{ public Sample creator(){ ...... return new SampleB } public Sample2 creator(String name){ ...... return new Sample2B } } 从上面看到两个工厂各自生产出一套 Sample和 Sample2,也许你会疑问，为什么我不可以使用两个工厂方法来分别生产 Sample和 Sample2? 抽象工厂还有另外一个关键要点，是因为 SimpleFactory 内，生产 Sample和生产 Sample2 的方法之间有一定联系， 所以才要将这两个方法捆绑在一个类中，这个工厂类有其本身特征，也许制造过程是统一的，比如：制造工艺比较简单，所以 名称叫 SimpleFactory。 在实际应用中，工厂方法用得比较多一些，而且是和动态类装入器组合在一起应用， 举例 我们以 Jive的 ForumFactory 为例，这个例子在前面的 Singleton 模式中我们讨论过，现在再讨论其工厂模式: public abstract class ForumFactory { private static Object initLock = new Object(); private static String className = "com.jivesoftware.forum.database.DbForumFactory"; private static ForumFactory factory = null; public static ForumFactory getInstance(Authorization authorization) { //If no valid authorization passed in, return null. if (authorization == null) { return null; } //以下使用了 Singleton 单态模式 if (factory == null) { synchronized(initLock) { if (factory == null) { ...... try { //动态转载类 Class c = Class.forName(className); factory = (ForumFactory)c.newInstance(); } catch (Exception e) { return null; } } } } //Now, 返回 proxy.用来限制授权对 forum 的访问 return new ForumFactoryProxy(authorization, factory, factory.getPermissions(authorization)); } //真正创建 forum 的方法由继承 forumfactory 的子类去完成. public abstract Forum createForum(String name, String description) throws UnauthorizedException, ForumAlreadyExistsException; .... } 因为现在的 Jive是通过数据库系统存放论坛帖子等内容数据,如果希望更改为通过文件系统实现,这个工厂方法 ForumFactory 就提供了提供动态接口: private static String className = "com.jivesoftware.forum.database.DbForumFactory"; 你可以使用自己开发的创建 forum 的方法代替 com.jivesoftware.forum.database.DbForumFactory 就可以. 在上面的一段代码中一共用了三种模式,除了工厂模式外,还有 Singleton 单态模式,以及 proxy模式,proxy 模式主要用来 授权用户对 forum 的访问,因为访问 forum 有两种人:一个是注册用户 一个是游客 guest,那么那么相应的权限就不一样,而且 这个权限是贯穿整个系统的,因此建立一个 proxy,类似网关的概念,可以很好的达到这个效果. 看看 Java 宠物店中的 CatalogDAOFactory: public class CatalogDAOFactory { /** * 本方法制定一个特别的子类来实现 DAO 模式。 * 具体子类定义是在 J2EE 的部署描述器中。 */ public static CatalogDAO getDAO() throws CatalogDAOSysException { CatalogDAO catDao = null; try { InitialContext ic = new InitialContext(); //动态装入 CATALOG_DAO_CLASS //可以定义自己的 CATALOG_DAO_CLASS，从而在无需变更太多代码 //的前提下，完成系统的巨大变更。 String className =(String) ic.lookup(JNDINames.CATALOG_DAO_CLASS); catDao = (CatalogDAO) Class.forName(className).newInstance(); } catch (NamingException ne) { throw new CatalogDAOSysException(" CatalogDAOFactory.getDAO: NamingException while getting DAO type : \n" + ne.getMessage()); } catch (Exception se) { throw new CatalogDAOSysException(" CatalogDAOFactory.getDAO: Exception while getting DAO type : \n" + se.getMessage()); } return catDao; } } CatalogDAOFactory 是典型的工厂方法， catDao 是通过动态类装入器 className 获得 CatalogDAOFactory 具体实现 子类，这个实现子类在 Java 宠物店是用来操作 catalog 数据库，用户可以根据数据库的类型不同，定制自己的具体实现子类， 将自己的子类名给与 CATALOG_DAO_CLASS 变量就可以。 由此可见，工厂方法确实为系统结构提供了非常灵活强大的动态扩展机制，只要我们更换一下具体的工厂方法，系统其他 地方无需一点变换，就有可能将系统功能进行改头换面的变化。 设计模式之 Builder Builder 模式定义: 将一个复杂对象的构建与它的表示分离,使得同样的构建过程可以创建不同的表示. Builder 模式是一步一步创建一个复杂的对象,它允许用户可以只通过指定复杂对象的类型和内容就可以构建它们.用户不知 道内部的具体构建细节.Builder 模式是非常类似抽象工厂模式,细微的区别大概只有在反复使用中才能体会到. 为何使用? 是为了将构建复杂对象的过程和它的部件解耦.注意: 是解耦过程和部件. 因为一个复杂的对象,不但有很多大量组成部分,如汽车,有很多部件:车轮 方向盘 发动机还有各种小零件等等,部件很多,但 远不止这些,如何将这些部件装配成一辆汽车,这个装配过程也很复杂(需要很好的组装技术),Builder 模式就是为了将部件和组装 过程分开. 如何使用? 首先假设一个复杂对象是由多个部件组成的,Builder 模式是把复杂对象的创建和部件的创建分别开来,分别用 Builder 类和 Director 类来表示. 首先,需要一个接口,它定义如何创建复杂对象的各个部件: public interface Builder { //创建部件 A 比如创建汽车车轮 void buildPartA(); //创建部件 B 比如创建汽车方向盘 void buildPartB(); //创建部件 C 比如创建汽车发动机 void buildPartC(); //返回最后组装成品结果 (返回最后装配好的汽车) //成品的组装过程不在这里进行,而是转移到下面的 Director 类中进行. //从而实现了解耦过程和部件 Product getResult(); } 用 Director 构建最后的复杂对象,而在上面 Builder 接口中封装的是如何创建一个个部件(复杂对象是由这些部件组成的),也就 是说 Director 的内容是如何将部件最后组装成成品: public class Director { private Builder builder; public Director( Builder builder ) { this.builder = builder; } // 将部件 partA partB partC 最后组成复杂对象 //这里是将车轮 方向盘和发动机组装成汽车的过程 public void construct() { builder.buildPartA(); builder.buildPartB(); builder.buildPartC(); } } Builder 的具体实现 ConcreteBuilder: 通过具体完成接口 Builder 来构建或装配产品的部件; 定义并明确它所要创建的是什么具体东西; 提供一个可以重新获取产品的接口: public class ConcreteBuilder implements Builder { Part partA, partB, partC; public void buildPartA() { //这里是具体如何构建 partA 的代码 }; public void buildPartB() { //这里是具体如何构建 partB 的代码 }; public void buildPartC() { //这里是具体如何构建 partB 的代码 }; public Product getResult() { //返回最后组装成品结果 }; } 复杂对象:产品 Product: public interface Product { } 复杂对象的部件: public interface Part { } 我们看看如何调用 Builder 模式: ConcreteBuilder builder = new ConcreteBuilder(); Director director = new Director( builder ); director.construct(); Product product = builder.getResult(); Builder 模式的应用 在 Java 实际使用中,我们经常用到"池"(Pool)的概念,当资源提供者无法提供足够的资源,并且这些资源需要被很多用户反复共 享时,就需要使用池. "池"实际是一段内存,当池中有一些复杂的资源的"断肢"(比如数据库的连接池,也许有时一个连接会中断),如果循环再利用这 些"断肢",将提高内存使用效率,提高池的性能.修改 Builder 模式中 Director 类使之能诊断"断肢"断在哪个部件上,再修复这个部件. 设计模式之 Prototype(原型) 原型模式定义: 用原型实例指定创建对象的种类,并且通过拷贝这些原型创建新的对象. Prototype模式允许一个对象再创建另外一个可定制的对象，根本无需知道任何如何创建的细节,工作原理是:通过将一个 原型对象传给那个要发动创建的对象，这个要发动创建的对象通过请求原型对象拷贝它们自己来实施创建。 如何使用? 因为 Java 中的提供 clone()方法来实现对象的克隆,所以 Prototype模式实现一下子变得很简单. 以勺子为例： public abstract class AbstractSpoon implements Cloneable { String spoonName; public void setSpoonName(String spoonName) {this.spoonName = spoonName;} public String getSpoonName() {return this.spoonName;} public Object clone() { Object object = null; try { object = super.clone(); } catch (CloneNotSupportedException exception) { System.err.println("AbstractSpoon is not Cloneable"); } return object; } } 有个具体实现(ConcretePrototype): public class SoupSpoon extends AbstractSpoon { public SoupSpoon() { setSpoonName("Soup Spoon"); } } 调用 Prototype 模式很简单: AbstractSpoon spoon = new SoupSpoon(); AbstractSpoon spoon2 = spoon.clone(); 当然也可以结合工厂模式来创建 AbstractSpoon 实例。 在 Java 中 Prototype 模式变成 clone()方法的使用，由于 Java 的纯洁的面向对象特性，使得在 Java 中使用设计模式变 得很自然，两者已经几乎是浑然一体了。这反映在很多模式上，如 Interator 遍历模式。 设计模式之 Adapter(适配器) 适配器模式定义: 将两个不兼容的类纠合在一起使用，属于结构型模式,需要有 Adaptee(被适配者)和 Adaptor(适配器)两个身份. 为何使用? 我们经常碰到要将两个没有关系的类组合在一起使用,第一解决方案是：修改各自类的接口，但是如果我们没有源代码，或 者，我们不愿意为了一个应用而修改各自的接口。 怎么办? 使用 Adapter，在这两种接口之间创建一个混合接口(混血儿). 如何使用? 实现 Adapter 方式,其实"think in Java"的"类再生"一节中已经提到,有两种方式：组合(composition)和继承 (inheritance). 假设我们要打桩，有两种类：方形桩 圆形桩. public class SquarePeg{ public void insert(String str){ System.out.println("SquarePeg insert():"+str); } } public class RoundPeg{ public void insertIntohole(String msg){ System.out.println("RoundPeg insertIntoHole():"+msg); } } 现在有一个应用,需要既打方形桩,又打圆形桩.那么我们需要将这两个没有关系的类综合应用.假设 RoundPeg 我们没有源 代码,或源代码我们不想修改,那么我们使用 Adapter 来实现这个应用: public class PegAdapter extends SquarePeg{ private RoundPeg roundPeg; public PegAdapter(RoundPeg peg)(this.roundPeg=peg;) public void insert(String str){ roundPeg.insertIntoHole(str);} } 在上面代码中,RoundPeg 属于 Adaptee,是被适配者.PegAdapter 是 Adapter,将 Adaptee(被适配者 RoundPeg)和 Target(目标 SquarePeg)进行适配.实际上这是将组合方法(composition)和继承(inheritance)方法综合运用. PegAdapter 首先继承 SquarePeg，然后使用 new 的组合生成对象方式，生成 RoundPeg 的对象 roundPeg，再重载父 类 insert()方法。从这里,你也了解使用 new生成对象和使用 extends 继承生成对象的不同,前者无需对原来的类修改,甚至无 需要知道其内部结构和源代码. 如果你有些 Java 使用的经验，已经发现，这种模式经常使用。 进一步使用 上面的 PegAdapter 是继承了 SquarePeg,如果我们需要两边继承，即继承 SquarePeg 又继承 RoundPeg,因为 Java 中 不允许多继承，但是我们可以实现(implements)两个接口(interface) public interface IRoundPeg{ public void insertIntoHole(String msg); } public interface ISquarePeg{ public void insert(String str); } 下面是新的 RoundPeg 和 SquarePeg, 除了实现接口这一区别，和上面的没什么区别。 public class SquarePeg implements ISquarePeg{ public void insert(String str){ System.out.println("SquarePeg insert():"+str); } } public class RoundPeg implements IRoundPeg{ public void insertIntohole(String msg){ System.out.println("RoundPeg insertIntoHole():"+msg); } } 下面是新的 PegAdapter,叫做 two-way adapter: public class PegAdapter implements IRoundPeg,ISquarePeg{ private RoundPeg roundPeg; private SquarePeg squarePeg; // 构造方法 public PegAdapter(RoundPeg peg){this.roundPeg=peg;} // 构造方法 public PegAdapter(SquarePeg peg)(this.squarePeg=peg;) public void insert(String str){ roundPeg.insertIntoHole(str);} } 还有一种叫 Pluggable Adapters,可以动态的获取几个 adapters 中一个。使用 Reflection 技术，可以动态的发现类中的 Public 方法。 设计模式之 Proxy(代理) 理解并使用设计模式,能够培养我们良好的面向对象编程习惯,同时在实际应用中,可以如鱼得水,享受游刃有余的乐趣. 代理模式是比较有用途的一种模式,而且变种较多,应用场合覆盖从小结构到整个系统的大结构,Proxy 是代理的意思,我们 也许有代理服务器等概念,代理概念可以解释为:在出发点到目的地之间有一道中间层,意为代理. 设计模式中定义: 为其他对象提供一种代理以控制对这个对象的访问. 为什么要使用 Proxy? 1.授权机制 不同级别的用户对同一对象拥有不同的访问权利,如 Jive 论坛系统中,就使用 Proxy 进行授权机制控制,访问 论坛有两种人:注册用户和游客(未注册用户),Jive 中就通过类似 ForumProxy 这样的代理来控制这两种用户对论坛的访问权 限. 2.某个客户端不能直接操作到某个对象,但又必须和那个对象有所互动. 举例两个具体情况: (1)如果那个对象是一个是很大的图片,需要花费很长时间才能显示出来,那么当这个图片包含在文档中时,使用编辑器或浏 览器打开这个文档,打开文档必须很迅速,不能等待大图片处理完成,这时需要做个图片 Proxy 来代替真正的图片. (2)如果那个对象在 Internet 的某个远端服务器上,直接操作这个对象因为网络速度原因可能比较慢,那我们可以先用 Proxy来代替那个对象. 总之原则是,对于开销很大的对象,只有在使用它时才创建,这个原则可以为我们节省很多宝贵的 Java 内存. 所以,有些人认 为 Java 耗费资源内存,我以为这和程序编制思路也有一定的关系. 如何使用 Proxy? 以 Jive 论坛系统为例,访问论坛系统的用户有多种类型:注册普通用户 论坛管理者 系统管理者 游客,注册普通用户才能发 言;论坛管理者可以管理他被授权的论坛;系统管理者可以管理所有事务等,这些权限划分和管理是使用 Proxy完成的. Forum 是 Jive的核心接口,在 Forum 中陈列了有关论坛操作的主要行为,如论坛名称 论坛描述的获取和修改,帖子发表删 除编辑等. 在 ForumPermissions 中定义了各种级别权限的用户: public class ForumPermissions implements Cacheable { /** * Permission to read object. */ public static final int READ = 0; /** * Permission to administer the entire sytem. */ public static final int SYSTEM_ADMIN = 1; /** * Permission to administer a particular forum. */ public static final int FORUM_ADMIN = 2; /** * Permission to administer a particular user. */ public static final int USER_ADMIN = 3; /** * Permission to administer a particular group. */ public static final int GROUP_ADMIN = 4; /** * Permission to moderate threads. */ public static final int MODERATE_THREADS = 5; /** * Permission to create a new thread. */ public static final int CREATE_THREAD = 6; /** * Permission to create a new message. */ public static final int CREATE_MESSAGE = 7; /** * Permission to moderate messages. */ public static final int MODERATE_MESSAGES = 8; ..... public boolean isSystemOrForumAdmin() { return (values[FORUM_ADMIN] || values[SYSTEM_ADMIN]); } ..... } 因此,Forum 中各种操作权限是和 ForumPermissions 定义的用户级别有关系的,作为接口 Forum 的实现:ForumProxy 正是将这种对应关系联系起来.比如,修改 Forum 的名称,只有论坛管理者或系统管理者可以修改,代码如下: public class ForumProxy implements Forum { private ForumPermissions permissions; private Forum forum; this.authorization = authorization; public ForumProxy(Forum forum, Authorization authorization, ForumPermissions permissions) { this.forum = forum; this.authorization = authorization; this.permissions = permissions; } ..... public void setName(String name) throws UnauthorizedException, ForumAlreadyExistsException { //只有是系统或论坛管理者才可以修改名称 if (permissions.isSystemOrForumAdmin()) { forum.setName(name); } else { throw new UnauthorizedException(); } } ... } 而 DbForum 才是接口 Forum 的真正实现,以修改论坛名称为例: public class DbForum implements Forum, Cacheable { ... public void setName(String name) throws ForumAlreadyExistsException { .... this.name = name; //这里真正将新名称保存到数据库中 saveToDb(); .... } ... } 凡是涉及到对论坛名称修改这一事件,其他程序都首先得和ForumProxy打交道,由ForumProxy决定是否有权限做某一样 事情,ForumProxy 是个名副其实的"网关","安全代理系统". 在平时应用中,无可避免总要涉及到系统的授权或安全体系,不管你有无意识的使用 Proxy,实际你已经在使用 Proxy了. 我们继续结合 Jive谈入深一点,下面要涉及到工厂模式了,如果你不了解工厂模式,请看我的另外一篇文章:设计模式之 Factory 我们已经知道,使用 Forum 需要通过 ForumProxy,Jive 中创建一个 Forum 是使用 Factory 模式,有一个总的抽象类 ForumFactory,在这个抽象类中,调用 ForumFactory 是通过 getInstance()方法实现,这里使用了 Singleton(也是设计模式 之一,由于介绍文章很多,我就不写了),getInstance()返回的是 ForumFactoryProxy. 为什么不返回 ForumFactory,而返回 ForumFactory 的实现 ForumFactoryProxy? 原因是明显的,需要通过代理确定是否有权限创建 forum. 在 ForumFactoryProxy 中我们看到代码如下: public class ForumFactoryProxy extends ForumFactory { protected ForumFactory factory; protected Authorization authorization; protected ForumPermissions permissions; public ForumFactoryProxy(Authorization authorization, ForumFactory factory, ForumPermissions permissions) { this.factory = factory; this.authorization = authorization; this.permissions = permissions; } public Forum createForum(String name, String description) throws UnauthorizedException, ForumAlreadyExistsException { //只有系统管理者才可以创建 forum if (permissions.get(ForumPermissions.SYSTEM_ADMIN)) { Forum newForum = factory.createForum(name, description); return new ForumProxy(newForum, authorization, permissions); } else { throw new UnauthorizedException(); } } 方法 createForum 返回的也是 ForumProxy, Proxy 就象一道墙,其他程序只能和 Proxy交互操作. 注意到这里有两个 Proxy:ForumProxy 和 ForumFactoryProxy. 代表两个不同的职责:使用 Forum 和创建 Forum; 至于为什么将使用对象和创建对象分开,这也是为什么使用 Factory 模式的原因所在:是为了"封装" "分派";换句话说,尽可 能功能单一化,方便维护修改. Jive论坛系统中其他如帖子的创建和使用,都是按照 Forum 这个思路而来的. 以上我们讨论了如何使用Proxy进行授权机制的访问,Proxy还可以对用户隐藏另外一种称为copy-on-write的优化方式. 拷贝一个庞大而复杂的对象是一个开销很大的操作,如果拷贝过程中,没有对原来的对象有所修改,那么这样的拷贝开销就没有必 要.用代理延迟这一拷贝过程. 比如:我们有一个很大的 Collection,具体如 hashtable,有很多客户端会并发同时访问它.其中一个特别的客户端要进行连 续的数据获取,此时要求其他客户端不能再向 hashtable 中增加或删除 东东. 最直接的解决方案是:使用 collection 的 lock,让这特别的客户端获得这个 lock,进行连续的数据获取,然后再释放 lock. public void foFetches(Hashtable ht){ synchronized(ht){ //具体的连续数据获取动作.. } } 但是这一办法可能锁住 Collection 会很长时间,这段时间,其他客户端就不能访问该 Collection 了. 第二个解决方案是clone这个Collection,然后让连续的数据获取针对clone出来的那个Collection操作.这个方案前提是, 这个 Collection 是可 clone的,而且必须有提供深度 clone的方法.Hashtable 就提供了对自己的 clone方法,但不是 Key和 value对象的 clone,关于 Clone含义可以参考专门文章. public void foFetches(Hashtable ht){ Hashttable newht=(Hashtable)ht.clone(); } 问题又来了,由于是针对clone出来的对象操作,如果原来的母体被其他客户端操作修改了, 那么对clone出来的对象操作就 没有意义了. 最后解决方案:我们可以等其他客户端修改完成后再进行 clone,也就是说,这个特别的客户端先通过调用一个叫 clone的方 法来进行一系列数据获取操作.但实际上没有真正的进行对象拷贝,直至有其他客户端修改了这个对象 Collection. 使用 Proxy实现这个方案.这就是 copy-on-write操作. Proxy应用范围很广,现在流行的分布计算方式 RMI 和 Corba 等都是 Proxy模式的应用. 更多 Proxy应用,见 http://www.research.umbc.edu/~tarr/cs491/lectures/Proxy.pdf Sun 公司的 Explore the Dynamic Proxy API Dynamic Proxy Classes 设计模式之 Facade(外观 总管 Manager) Facade 模式的定义: 为子系统中的一组接口提供一个一致的界面. Facade一个典型应用就是数据库 JDBC 的应用,如下例对数据库的操作: public class DBCompare { Connection conn = null; PreparedStatement prep = null; ResultSet rset = null; try { Class.forName( "" ).newInstance(); conn = DriverManager.getConnection( "" ); String sql = "SELECT * FROM WHERE = ?"; prep = conn.prepareStatement( sql ); prep.setString( 1, "" ); rset = prep.executeQuery(); if( rset.next() ) { System.out.println( rset.getString( "也非常方便,比如从 Mysql 数据库换到 Oracle 数据库,只要更换 facade接口中的 driver 就可以. 我们做成了一个 Facade 接口,使用该接口,上例中的程序就可以更改如下: public class DBCompare { String sql = "SELECT * FROM
WHERE = ?"; try { Mysql msql=new mysql(sql); prep.setString( 1, "" ); rset = prep.executeQuery(); if( rset.next() ) { System.out.println( rset.getString( "return false; } //删除部件方法 public boolean remove(Equipment equipment) { return false; } //注意这里，这里就提供一种用于访问组合体类的部件方法。 public Iterator iter() { return null; } public Equipment(final String name) { this.name=name; } } 抽象类 Equipment 就是 Component 定义，代表着组合体类的对象们,Equipment 中定义几个共同的方法。 public class Disk extends Equipment { public Disk(String name) { super(name); } //定义 Disk 实价为 1 public double netPrice() { return 1.; } //定义了 disk 折扣价格是 0.5 对折。 public double discountPrice() { return .5; } } Disk是组合体内的一个对象，或称一个部件，这个部件是个单独元素( Primitive)。 还有一种可能是，一个部件也是一个组合体，就是说这个部件下面还有'儿子'，这是树形结构中通常的情况，应该比较容易理解。 现在我们先要定义这个组合体： abstract class CompositeEquipment extends Equipment { private int i=0; //定义一个 Vector 用来存放'儿子' private Lsit equipment=new ArrayList(); public CompositeEquipment(String name) { super(name); } public boolean add(Equipment equipment) { this.equipment.add(equipment); return true; } public double netPrice() { double netPrice=0.; Iterator iter=equipment.iterator(); for(iter.hasNext()) netPrice+=((Equipment)iter.next()).netPrice(); return netPrice; } public double discountPrice() { double discountPrice=0.; Iterator iter=equipment.iterator(); for(iter.hasNext()) discountPrice+=((Equipment)iter.next()).discountPrice(); return discountPrice; } //注意这里，这里就提供用于访问自己组合体内的部件方法。 //上面 dIsk 之所以没有，是因为 Disk 是个单独(Primitive)的元素. public Iterator iter() { return equipment.iterator() ; { //重载 Iterator 方法 public boolean hasNext() { return ireturn equipment.elementAt(i++); else throw new NoSuchElementException(); } } 上面 CompositeEquipment 继承了 Equipment,同时为自己里面的对象们提供了外部访问的方法,重载了 Iterator,Iterator 是 Java 的 Collection 的一个接口，是 Iterator 模式的实现. 我们再看看 CompositeEquipment 的两个具体类:盘盒 Chassis 和箱子 Cabinet，箱子里面可以放很多东西，如底板， 电源盒，硬盘盒等；盘盒里面可以放一些小设备，如硬盘 软驱等。无疑这两个都是属于组合体性质的。 public class Chassis extends CompositeEquipment { public Chassis(String name) { super(name); } public double netPrice() { return 1.+super.netPrice(); } public double discountPrice() { return .5+super.discountPrice(); } } public class Cabinet extends CompositeEquipment { public Cabinet(String name) { super(name); } public double netPrice() { return 1.+super.netPrice(); } public double discountPrice() { return .5+super.discountPrice(); } } 至此我们完成了整个 Composite模式的架构。 我们可以看看客户端调用 Composote 代码: Cabinet cabinet=new Cabinet("Tower"); Chassis chassis=new Chassis("PC Chassis"); //将 PC Chassis 装到 Tower 中 (将盘盒装到箱子里) cabinet.add(chassis); //将一个 10GB 的硬盘装到 PC Chassis (将硬盘装到盘盒里) chassis.add(new Disk("10 GB")); //调用 netPrice()方法; System.out.println("netPrice="+cabinet.netPrice()); System.out.println("discountPrice="+cabinet.discountPrice()); 上面调用的方法 netPrice()或 discountPrice()，实际上 Composite 使用 Iterator 遍历了整个树形结构,寻找同样包含这 个方法的对象并实现调用执行. Composite是个很巧妙体现智慧的模式，在实际应用中，如果碰到树形结构，我们就可以尝试是否可以使用这个模式。 以论坛为例，一个版(forum)中有很多帖子(message),这些帖子有原始贴，有对原始贴的回应贴，是个典型的树形结构， 那么当然可以使用 Composite模式，那么我们进入 Jive中看看，是如何实现的. Jive 解剖 在 Jive中 ForumThread 是 ForumMessages 的容器 container(组合体).也就是说，ForumThread 类似我们上例中的 CompositeEquipment.它和 messages 的关系如图： [thread] |- [message] |- [message] |- [message] |- [message] |- [message] 我们在 ForumThread 看到如下代码： public interface ForumThread { .... public void addMessage(ForumMessage parentMessage, ForumMessage newMessage) throws UnauthorizedException; public void deleteMessage(ForumMessage message) throws UnauthorizedException; public Iterator messages(); .... } 类似 CompositeEquipment, 提供用于访问自己组合体内的部件方法: 增加 删除 遍历. 结合我的其他模式中对 Jive的分析，我们已经基本大体理解了 Jive 论坛体系的框架，如果你之前不理解设计模式，而直接去看 Jive源代码，你肯定无法看懂。 参考文章： Composite 模式和树形结构的讨论 设计模式之 Decorator(油漆工) 装饰模式:Decorator 常被翻译成"装饰",我觉得翻译成"油漆工"更形象点,油漆工(decorator)是用来刷油漆的,那么被刷油漆的 对象我们称 decoratee.这两种实体在 Decorator 模式中是必须的. Decorator定义: 动态给一个对象添加一些额外的职责,就象在墙上刷油漆.使用 Decorator 模式相比用生成子类方式达到功能的扩充显得更为灵 活. 为什么使用 Decorator? 我们通常可以使用继承来实现功能的拓展,如果这些需要拓展的功能的种类很繁多,那么势必生成很多子类,增加系统的复杂性, 同时,使用继承实现功能拓展,我们必须可预见这些拓展功能,这些功能是编译时就确定了,是静态的. 使用Decorator的理由是:这些功能需要由用户动态决定加入的方式和时机.Decorator提供了"即插即用"的方法,在运行期间决 定何时增加何种功能. 如何使用? 举Adapter 中的打桩示例,在 Adapter 中有两种类:方形桩 圆形桩,Adapter模式展示如何综合使用这两个类,在Decorator模 式中,我们是要在打桩时增加一些额外功能,比如,挖坑 在桩上钉木板等,不关心如何使用两个不相关的类. 我们先建立一个接口: public interface Work { public void insert(); } 接口 Work有一个具体实现:插入方形桩或圆形桩,这两个区别对 Decorator 是无所谓.我们以插入方形桩为例: public class SquarePeg implements Work{ public void insert(){ System.out.println("方形桩插入"); } } 现在有一个应用:需要在桩打入前,挖坑,在打入后,在桩上钉木板,这些额外的功能是动态,可能随意增加调整修改,比如,可能又需 要在打桩之后钉架子(只是比喻). 那么我们使用 Decorator 模式,这里方形桩 SquarePeg 是 decoratee(被刷油漆者),我们需要在 decoratee 上刷些"油漆",这 些油漆就是那些额外的功能. public class Decorator implements Work{ private Work work; //额外增加的功能被打包在这个 List 中 private ArrayList others = new ArrayList(); //在构造器中使用组合 new方式,引入 Work 对象; public Decorator(Work work) { this.work=work; others.add("挖坑"); others.add("钉木板"); } public void insert(){ newMethod(); } //在新方法中,我们在 insert 之前增加其他方法,这里次序先后是用户灵活指定的 public void newMethod() { otherMethod(); work.insert(); } public void otherMethod() { ListIterator listIterator = others.listIterator(); while (listIterator.hasNext()) { System.out.println(((String)(listIterator.next())) + " 正在进行"); } } } 在上例中,我们把挖坑和钉木板都排在了打桩 insert 前面,这里只是举例说明额外功能次序可以任意安排. 好了,Decorator 模式出来了,我们看如何调用: Work squarePeg = new SquarePeg(); Work decorator = new Decorator(squarePeg); decorator.insert(); Decorator 模式至此完成. 如果你细心,会发现,上面调用类似我们读取文件时的调用: FileReader fr = new FileReader(filename); BufferedReader br = new BufferedReader(fr); 实际上 Java 的 I/O API 就是使用 Decorator 实现的,I/O变种很多,如果都采取继承方法,将会产生很多子类,显然相当繁琐. Jive 中的 Decorator 实现 在论坛系统中,有些特别的字是不能出现在论坛中如"打倒 XXX",我们需要过滤这些"反动"的字体.不让他们出现或者高亮度显 示. 在 IBM Java 专栏中专门谈 Jive的文章中,有谈及 Jive中 ForumMessageFilter.java 使用了 Decorator 模式,其实,该程序并 没有真正使用 Decorator,而是提示说:针对特别论坛可以设计额外增加的过滤功能,那么就可以重组 ForumMessageFilter 作 为 Decorator 模式了. 所以,我们在分辨是否真正是Decorator模式,以及会真正使用Decorator模式,一定要把握好Decorator模式的定义,以及其中 参与的角色(Decoratee 和 Decorator). 设计模式之 Bridge Bridge 模式定义 :将抽象和行为划分开来,各自独立,但能动态的结合。 任何事物对象都有抽象和行为之分，例如人，人是一种抽象，人分男人和女人等；人有行为，行为也有各种具体表现，所 以，“人”与“人的行为”两个概念也反映了抽象和行为之分。 在面向对象设计的基本概念中，对象这个概念实际是由属性和行为两个部分组成的，属性我们可以认为是一种静止的，是 一种抽象，一般情况下，行为是包含在一个对象中，但是，在有的情况下，我们需要将这些行为也进行归类，形成一个总的行 为接口，这就是桥模式的用处。 为什么使用? 不希望抽象部分和行为有一种固定的绑定关系，而是应该可以动态联系的。 如果一个抽象类或接口有多个具体实现(子类、concrete subclass),这些子类之间关系可能有以下两种情况: 1. 这多个子类之间概念是并列的,如前面举例,打桩,有两个 concrete class:方形桩和圆形桩;这两个形状上的桩是并列的, 没有概念上的重复。 2.这多个子类之中有内容概念上重叠.那么需要我们把抽象共同部分和行为共同部分各自独立开来,原来是准备放在一个接 口里,现在需要设计两个接口：抽象接口和行为接口，分别放置抽象和行为. 例如,一杯咖啡为例,子类实现类为四个：中杯加奶、大杯加奶、 中杯不加奶、大杯不加奶。 但是，我们注意到：上面四个子类中有概念重叠，可从另外一个角度进行考虑，这四个类实际是两个角色的组合：抽象 和 行为，其中抽象为：中杯和大杯；行为为：加奶 不加奶（如加橙汁 加苹果汁）. 实现四个子类在抽象和行为之间发生了固定的绑定关系，如果以后动态增加加葡萄汁的行为，就必须再增加两个类：中杯 加葡萄汁和大杯加葡萄汁。显然混乱,扩展性极差。 那我们从分离抽象和行为的角度，使用 Bridge模式来实现。 如何实现?
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